1. describe the different regions of the nephron tubules and explain the anatomic relationship between the tubules and the gross structure of the kidney.

2. describe the structural and functional relationships between the nephron tubules and their associated blood vessels.

3. describe the composition of glomerular ultrafiltrate and explain how it is produced.

4. explain how the proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs salt and water.

5. describe active transport and osmosis in the loop of Henle and explain how these processes produce a countercurrent multiplier system.

6. explain how the vasa recta function in countercurrent exchange.

7. describe the role of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in regulating the final urine volume.

8. describe the mechanisms of glucose reabsorption and explain the meanings of the terms transport maximum and renal plasma threshold.

9. define the renal plasma clearance, and explain why the clearance of inulin is equal to the glomerular filtration rate.

10. explain how the clearance of different molecules is determined and how the processes of reabsorption and secretion affect the clearance measurement..

11. explain the mechanism of Na⁺ reabsorption in the distal tubule and why this reabsorption occurs together with the secretion of K⁺.

12. describe the effects of aldosterone on the distal convoluted tubule and how aldosterone secretion is regulated.

13. explain how activation of the renin-angiotensin system results in the stimulation of aldosterone secretion.

14. describe the interactions between plasma K⁺ and H⁺ concentrations and explain how this affects the tubular secretion of these ions.

15. describe the role of the kidneys in the regulation of acid-base balance.

16. describe the different mechanisms by which substances can act as diuretics and explain why some cause excessive loss of K⁺.