The Scope of Anatomy and Physiology

Study of the structure of an organism is called [1], and relies heavily on the careful cutting and separation of tissues, called [2]. Microscopic study of the structure of cells and tissues is called [3]. In the physical examination of a living person, the body is studied not only by observation but also by [4], or touch, and by [5], listening to the sounds it makes. The study of function is called [6]. Much has been learned about the human body by [7] anatomy and physiology, in which generalizations are drawn from the study of a variety of animal species. A major theme of this book, the [8] of structure and function, stresses that anatomy and physiology are not isolated sciences but are mutually dependent.

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The Nature of Human Life

Living things can be recognized by the fact that they are all composed of [9]; they all grow and maintain themselves through chemical changes collectively called [10]; and they are all capable of responding to environmental changes called [11]; among other qualities. Of the five kingdoms into which living things are often divided, humans belong to the [12] kingdom. Members of this kingdom are described as [13] because the genetic material of each cell is contained in a nucleus, and as [14] because they cannot synthesize their own nutrients. The presence of a dorsal supportive rod, the [15], and pharygeal [16] at some stage of development places humans in the phylum Chordata. We are classified as mammals because of our hair; mammary glands; [17], the generation of most of our body heat by our own metabolism; and the presence of only one movable jawbone but three [18]. Our flat nails, clavicles, and [19] thumbs define us as primates; and finally, we are placed in the family Hominidae because of our [20] locomotion, the ability to walk easily on two legs. The human body has a hierarchy of structural complexity that includes 11 [21], each composed of several organs. An organ is composed of two or more kinds of [22]. The smallest entities considered to be alive are [23], but many of their functions are carried out by still smaller internal structures called [24].

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Human Evolution

Any genetic change in a population from generation to generation is called [25]. Through the process of [26], as Darwin called his theory, some genetic variants leave more offspring than others. Environmental factors called [27] lead to the establishment of [28] in a species-features than enable it to function more effectively in its environment. The prehensile hands of primates, for example, are a/an 28 to their [29], or treetop, habitat. Three-dimensional or [30] vision, as well as color vision, also adapted primates to this habitat; thus we can understand the origins of these traits that were eventually passed down to humans. Much of human anatomy became remodeled, however, as an adaptation to [31], the upright locomotion favorable to survival in the African grasslands. The helpless state of our newborn infants can be traced to a combination of skeletal remodeling and the dramatic increase in [32] volume seen over the course of human evolution.

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Scientific Method

The habit of making numerous observations and drawing generalizations from them, called the [33] method of science, is the primary method used in human anatomy. The [34] method, employed in studies of physiology, attempts to answer a question by formulating an educated guess called a/an [35], then making a [36] about what should be observed if that guess is correct and a certain observation or experiment is carried out. A valid experiment requires a [37] group which is treated the same as the experimental group except for the one variable being studied. In human research, it is especially important to control for effects of the subject¹s mental state, which are called [38] effects. One way of doing this is to give a control group a neutral substance called a/an [39], and preferably to use a [40] procedure where neither the person receiving a treatment nor the person giving it knows whether the substance administered is a drug or 39. After data have been collected, [41] tests are needed to determine whether the data suggest a significant effect of the treatment. Another way to help maintain the quality and objectivity of science is [42], the process of having one¹s research evaluated by other experts in the field. Many scientific findings are expressed as concise statements or mathematical formulae called [43], which express predictable relationships between natural causes and effects. When many hypotheses and laws have been confirmed by repeated observations, the findings may be summarized in a [44] which then provides suggestions and direction for further research.

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Origins of Biomedical Science

The Greek physician [45] was one of the first to argue for [46], the idea that all natural phenomena such as diseases have natural causes, and [47], the idea that they can be understood through rational inquiry. The philosopher [48] believed in both natural and supernatural causes of things, but he distinguished between the two, and it is from his word for natural causes that we get the words physiology and physician. The Roman physician [49] was a careful anatomist, although hampered by the prohibition against dissecting [50] in his time. He advised readers to trust their own observations more than books, including his own, but his advice was ignored and scholars of the Middle Ages made a dogma of his work. The Medieval Muslim scholar [51] studied the Greek literature and added many new observations of his own, becoming a leading medical authority of his era.

The Renaissance medical professor [52], however, was so much against established medical dogma he threw the books of 48 and 49 into a bonfire and denounced them as obstacles to learning. [53] came to be called the father of modern anatomy because he dissected cadavers first-hand, published detailed illustrations of their anatomy, and revolutionized the teaching of medical students. His counterpart in physiology was [54], best known for his innovative experimental studies of blood circulation. A simple microscope developed by Dutch textile merchant [55] opened the door to a new level of understanding of anatomy. His admirer, [56], further improved on the device by adding a second lens, creating a [57] microscope more like those in common use today. He also was the first to use the word cell in biology. However, it was not generally appreciated that all living things are made of cells until the 19th century when botanist Mathias Schleiden and zoologist [58] studied a broader range of species with the microscope.

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Homeostasis and Feedback

French physiologist [59] pointed out in the nineteenth century that the body maintains a relatively stable internal environment, although Hippocrates had realized essentially the same point. Walter Cannon called this tendency [60] in 1932. This principle states that for a given physiological variable (such as temperature, pH, or blood glucose), the body has a certain average called a [61] and maintains a state of [62], in which there are limited fluctuations around this value. This state is maintained by self-corrective processes called [63] loops. The opposite of this, a self-amplifying process called [64], sometimes contributes to maintenance of health, especially in processes where rapid change is needed, but it often results in dangerous physiological imbalances. Recovery from disease is typically a process of stopping this process and restoring 60.

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