Properties and Types of Sensory Receptors (pp.552-553)

1. General properties of receptors
   1.   Receptors as transducers
   2.   Information transmitted
   • Modality
   • Location
   • Intensity
   • Duration
     • Sensory adaptation
     • Phasic receptors
     • Tonic receptors
2. Classification of receptors
   1.   Stimulus modality
   2.   General and special senses
   3.   Sources of stimuli

The General Senses (pp.553-558) (table 16.1)

1. Unencapsulated nerve endings
2. Encapsulated nerve endings
3. Somesthetic projection pathways
4. Pain
   1.   Causes
   2.   Fast and slow pain fibers
   3.   Somatic and visceral pain
   4.   Projection pathways
   5.   Referred pain
   6.   Chemical agents of pain
   • Bradykinin
   • Substance P
   7.   CNS modulation of pain
   • Enkephalins and endorphins
   • Pain gating

The Chemical Senses (pp.558-562)

1. Taste (gustation)
   1.   Anatomy and histology
   • Lingual papillae
   • Taste buds
   • Taste cells
   2.   Physiology
   • Four primary taste sensations
   • Taste and flavor
   3.   Projection pathways
   • Cranial nerves VII, IX, and X
   • Role of nuclei in medulla oblongata
   • Projection via thalamus to parietal lobe
2. Smell (olfaction)
   1.   Anatomy and histology
   • Location of olfactory mucosa
   • Olfactory neurons
   2.   Physiology
   • Properties of odorant molecules
   • Olfactory transduction
   • Olfactory adaptation
   3.   Projection pathways
   • Olfactory nerves
   • Olfactory bulbs
   • Olfactory tracts
   • Projections to cerebral cortex

Hearing and Equilibrium (pp.562-576)

1. Nature of sound
   1.   Production of sound
   2.   Frequency and pitch
   3.   Amplitude and loudness
2. Anatomy of the ear (table 16.3)
   1.   External ear
   • Auricle (pinna)
   • Auditory canal
   • Tympanic membrane
   2.   Middle ear (tympanic cavity)
   • Auditory (eustachian) tube
   • Malleus, incus, and stapes
   • Stapedius and tensor tympani
   3.   Inner ear
   • Bony and membranous labyrinths
   • Perilymph and endolymph
   • Vestibular system and cochlea
   4.   Structure of the cochlea (table 16.3)
3. Physiology of hearing
   1.   Middle-ear functions
   • Impedance matching
   • Tympanic reflex
   2.   Hair cell stimulation
   • Vibration of stapes
   • Movement of perilymph
   • Vibration of basilar membrane
   • Role of tectorial membrane
   • Hair cell tip links and ion channels
   3.   Sensory coding
   • Coding for amplitude
   • Coding for frequency
   4.   Cochlear tuning
   • By contraction of outer hair cells
   • By feedback to inner hair cells
4. Auditory projection pathway
   1.   Projections to medulla oblongata
   • Cochlear nucleus
   • Superior olivary nucleus
   2.   Projection to primary auditory cortex
   3.   Projections to superior and inferior colliculi
5. Deafness
6. Equilibrium
   1.   Vestibular apparatus
   2.   Static and dynamic equilibrium
   3.   Saccule and utricle
   • Saccule and macula sacculi
   • Utricle and macula utriculi
   • Otolithic membrane
   • Static equilibrium
   • Detection of linear acceleration
   4.   Semicircular ducts
   • Orientation and structure
   • Crista ampullaris and cupula
   • Detection of angular acceleration
   5.   Projection pathways
   • Vestibular nerve
   • Vestibular nucleus of medulla
   • Nuclei of cranial nerves III, IV, and VI
   • Terminations in cerebellum, spinal cord, and cerebral cortex
   • Visual reflexes

Vision (pp.577-594)

1. Light energy and photochemical reactions
2. Accessory organs of the orbit (table 16.4)
   1.   Eyebrows
   2.   Eyelids
   3.   Conjunctiva
   4.   Lacrimal apparatus
   5.   Extrinsic muscles
   6.   Orbital fat
3. Anatomy of the eye (table 16.4)
   1.   Tunics
   2.   Optical apparatus
   3.   Neural apparatus
   4.   Correlation of retinal histology with gross anatomy
4. Formation of an image
   1.   Admittance of light
   • Pupillary dilation and constriction
   • Photopupillary and consensual light reflexes
   2.   Refraction
   3.   Near response
   • Convergence of eyes
   • Pupillary constriction
   • Accommodation of lens
5. Sensory transduction
   1.   Visual pigments
   • Rhodopsin (visual purple)
   • Photopsin
   2.   The photochemical reaction
   • Isomerization of retinal
   • Dissociation from opsin
   • Bleaching
   3.   Generating an optic nerve signal
   • The dark current
   • Glutamic acid secretion
   • Events occurring in light
     • Bleaching of rhodopsin
     • Breakdown of cGMP
     • Cessation of dark current
     • Hyperpolarization of receptor cells
     • Effects on bipolar and ganglion cells
     • Signals in optic nerve
   •   Regeneration of rhodopsin
   • Conversion of trans- to cis-retinal
   • Linkage of cis-retinal to opsin

Visual projection pathway

1.   Optic nerves and chiasma
2.   Optic tracts
3.   Lateral geniculate body
4.   Optic radiation
5.   Primary visual cortex
6.   Superior colliculi and pretectal nuclei

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