An Overview of the Endocrine System (p.600-601)

1. Meaning of hormone
   
2. Meaning of endocrine
   
3. Comparisons with nervous system
   

The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland (p.602-610)

1. Hypothalamus
   
2. Pituitary Gland
   a.  Adenohypophysis
   
   • Anterior lobe
   • Pars tuberalis
   • Pars intermedia
   b.  Neurohypophysis
   
   • Median eminence
   • Stalk
   • Posterior lobe
   • Hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract
3. Anterior lobe hormones
   a.  Six hormones (table 17.2)
   b.  Tropic hormones
   c.  Pituitary axes
   
4. Pars intermedia
   
5. Posterior lobe hormones (table 17.2)
   
6. Control of pituitary secretion
   a.  Hypothalamic control
   
   • Hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system
   • Releasing and inhibiting hormones (table 17.3)
   • Neuroendocrine reflexes
   b.  Control by higher brain centers
   c.  Feedback from target organs
   
   • Negative feedback inhibition
   • Positive feedback
7. Growth hormone (somatotropin)
   a.  Functions
   b.  Relationship to growth and aging
   c.  Stimuli and cycles of secretion
   d.  Role of somatomedins
   
8. Pituitary disorders
   a.  Hypopituitarism
   b.  Hyperpituitarism
   c.  Diabetes insipidus
   

Other Endocrine Glands (p.610-619)

1. Pineal gland (epiphysis cerebri)
   a.  Changes with age
   b.  Melatonin and serotonin
   c.  Relation to sexual development
   
2. Thymus
   a.  Changes with age
   b.  Thymopoietin and thymosins
   
3. Thyroid
   a.  Anatomy
   
   • Two lobes connected by isthmus
   • Follicles and follicular cells
   • C cells (parafollicular cells)
   b.  Hormones
   
   • Triiodothyronine (T₃) and tetraiodothyronine (T₄)
   • Calcitonin
   c.  Disorders
   
   • Congenital hypothyroidism
   • Myxedema
   • Endemic goiter and iodine
   • Toxic goiter (Graves disease)
4. Parathyroids
   a.  Size and location
   b.  Chief cells and parathyroid hormone (PTH)
   c.  PTH deficiency and excess
   
5. Adrenals
   a.  Adrenal medulla
   b.  Zones of adrenal cortex
   c.  Sex steroids
   d.  Mineralocorticoid: aldosterone
   e.  Glucocorticoids: cortisol and corticosterone
   f.  Disorders
   
   • Pheochromocytoma
   • Cushing syndrome
   • Adrenogenital syndrome
   • Addison disease
6. Pancreas
   a.  Anatomy
   b.  Cells and secretions of the islets
   
   • a cells: glucagon
   • ß cells: insulin
   • d cells: somatostatin
   c.  Diabetes mellitus (DM)
   
   • Signs and symptoms
   • Relationship to kidney physiology
   • Types, causes, and pathology
     • Insulin-dependent DM (IDDM)
     • Non-insulin-dependent DM (NIDDM)
     d.  Hyperinsulinism
     
   • Gonads
     a.  Ovarian anatomy
     b.  Ovarian hormones (table 17.4)
     c.  Testicular anatomy
     d.  Testicular hormones (table 17.4)
     
   • Endocrine cells in other organs (table 17.4)
     a.  Heart
     b.  Kidneys
     c.  Liver
     d.  Stomach and small intestine
     e.  Placenta
     

Hormones and Their Actions (p.620-629)

1. Chemical identity of hormones (table 17.5)
   a.  Steroids
   b.  Biogenic amines
   c.  Peptides
   
2. Synthesis and transport
   a.  Steroids
   
   • Synthesized from cholesterol
   • Carried by transport proteins
   • Bound and unbound hormone
   b.  Thyroid hormones
   
   • Synthesized from tyrosine and iodine
   • Formation of T₃ and T₄
   • Storage as thyroglobulin
   • Transport by thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)
   • T₄ -> T₃ conversion in target cell
   c.  Peptides
   
   • Preprohormones and prohormones
   • Insulin synthesis as example
3. Hormone receptors
   a.  Analogy to enzyme-substrate binding
   b.  Locations in target cells
   
   • Plasma membrane
   • Nucleus
4. Thyroid hormone action
   a.  Binding to nuclear receptor
   b.  Representative effects
   
   • Production of Na⁺-K⁺ pumps
   • Stimulation of GH secretion
5. Steroid hormone action
   a.  Binding to nuclear receptor
   b.  Induction of protein synthesis
   
6. Peptide and biogenic amine action
   a.  Binding to membrane receptor
   b.  Activation of second messengers
   
   • cAMP and cGMP
   • Diacylglycerol
   • Inositol triphosphate and calcium
7. Enzyme amplification
   
8. Effects of hormone concentration
   a.  Up-regulation
   b.  Down-regulation
   c.  Effects of pharmacological doses
   
9. Hormone deactivation
   
10. Hormone interactions
    a.  Synergistic
    b.  Permissive
    c.  Antagonistic
    

Eicosanoids and Other Chemical Messengers (p.629-631)

1. Paracrine secretions (local hormones)
   
2. Eicosanoid synthesis
   a.  Release of arachidonic acid
   b.  Lipoxygenase pathway
   c.  Cyclooxygenase pathway
   
3. Prostaglandin actions
   

Stress and Adaptation (p.631-632)

1. Stress and the pituitary-adrenal axis
   
2. General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
   a.  Alarm reaction
   b.  Stage of resistance
   c.  Stage of exhaustion
   

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