Functions of the Urinary System (pp.832-834)

1. Organs of the urinary system
2. Renal functions
3. Nitrogenous wastes
4. Excretion
5. Osmolarity

1. Gross anatomy
   1.   Location, size, weight, shape
   2.   Protective coverings
   • Renal fascia
   • Adipose capsule
   • Renal capsule
   3.   Renal parenchyma and sinus
   4.   Renal cortex and medulla
   5.   Renal calices and pelvis
2. The nephron
   1.   Juxtamedullary and cortical nephrons
   2.   Renal circulation
   • Renal artery
   • Interlobar arteries
   • Arcuate arteries
   • Interlobular arteries
   • Afferent arteriole
   • Glomerulus
   • Efferent arteriole
   • Peritubular capillaries
   • Interlobular veins
   • Arcuate veins
   • Interlobar veins
   • Renal vein
   • Vasa recta
   3.   Renal corpuscle
   • Glomerulus
   • Glomerular capsule
   • Parietal and visceral layers
   • Urinary and vascular poles
   4.   Renal tubule
   • Proximal convoluted tubule
   • Nephron loop
     • Descending and ascending limbs
     • Thin and thick segments
   • Distal convoluted tubule
   • Collecting duct
3. Juxtaglomerular apparatus

1. Filtration membrane
   1.   Fenestrated endothelium
   2.   Basement membrane
   • Particle exclusion by size
   • Particle exclusion by charge
   3.   Filtration slits of podocytes
2. Filtration pressure
   1.   Blood pressure
   2.   Capsular hydrostatic pressure
   3.   Colloid osmotic pressure
   4.   Net filtration pressure
3. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
4. Regulation of glomerular filtration
   1.   Renal autoregulation
   • Juxtaglomerular apparatus
     • Juxtaglomerular cells
     • Macula densa
     • Mesangial cells
     • Mechanism of action
   2.   Sympathetic control
   3.   Renin-angiotensin mechanism

1. Proximal convoluted tubule
   1.   Tubular reabsorption
   2.   Role of solvent drag
   3.   Reabsorption of specific substances
   • Sodium
     • Creation of concentration gradient
     • Transcellular and paracellular reabsorption
     • Role in reabsorption of other substances
   • Glucose
   • Amino acids
   • Water
   • Chloride
   • Other electrolytes
   • Protein
   • Nitrogenous wastes
   4.   Transport maximum
   5.   Tubular secretion
   • Waste removal
   • Acid-base balance
2. Nephron loop
3. Distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
   1.   Effects of aldosterone
   2.   Effect of atrial natriuretic factor

1. Collecting duct
2. Control of concentration
   1.   Producing hypotonic urine
   2.   Producing hypertonic urine
   • Role of glomerular filtration rate
   • Role of antidiuretic hormone
3. Countercurrent multiplier
   1.   Water loss by descending limb
   2.   NaCl reabsorption by ascending limb
   3.   Contribution of urea to medullary osmolarity
4. Countercurrent exchanger of the vasa recta

1. Composition and properties of urine
   1.   Appearance
   2.   Odor
   3.   Specific gravity
   4.   Osmolarity
   5.   pH
   6.   Chemical composition
2. Urine volume
   1.   Forms of diabetes
   2.   Diuretics
3. Renal function tests
   1.   Calculating renal clearance
   2.   Calculating glomerular filtration rate

1. Ureters
2. Urinary bladder
   1.   Detrusor muscle
   2.   Trigone
   3.   Capacity of the bladder
3. Urethra
   1.   Female
   2.   Male
   • Prostatic portion
   • Membranous portion
   • Penile portion
   3.   Urethral sphincters
   • Involuntary internal sphincter
   • Voluntary external sphincter
4. Voiding urine
   1.   Stretch receptors of bladder
   2.   Micturition reflex
   3.   Voluntary control

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