Chapt. Object.

Figures & Tables

Trnspcy. Acetates

Masters

1

I. Classification of the Senses

Table 15.1, p. 457

A. Types of Senses

1. General Senses

a. Somatic

b. Visceral

2. Special Senses

3. Sense Modalities

2

B. Types of Sensory Receptors

Table 15.1, p.457

1. Mechanoreceptors

2. Chemoreceptors

3. Photoreceptors

4. Thermoreceptors

5. Nociceptors

1

II. Sensation

A. Perception as Conscious Awareness

B. Result of Multi-Step Cause and Effect Chain

1. Stimulus Present

2. Receptor Capable of Detecting Stimulus

3. Conduction of Action Potentials to CNS

4. Translation of Action Potentials into Sensory Information within CNS

5. CNS Processing of Sensory Information to Achieve Conscious Awareness of Stimulus

Clinical Note, p.458

C. Phenomenon of Projection

D. Accommodation

Predict Quest. 1

1. Tonic Receptors Accommodate Slowly

2. Phasic Receptors Accommodate Rapidly

2

III. Types of Afferent Nerve Endings

Table 15.2 & Fig. 15.1, p.459

TM-50

A. Visceroreceptors Mostly Free Nerve Endings

1. Pain

2. Temperature

a. Cold Receptors

b. Warm Receptors

c. Pain Receptors

Predict Quest. 2

3. Itch and Movement

B. Exteroreceptors (Cutaneous Receptors)

Fig. 15.1, p.459

TM-50

1. Free Nerve Endings

2. Merkel's Disks

3. Hair Follicle Receptors

4. Pacinian Corpuscles

5. Meissner's Corpuscles

6. Ruffini's End Organs

C. Proprioceptors

Fig. 15.2, p.460

1. Golgi Tendon Organs

Fig. 15.2a, p.460

TM-51

2. Muscle Spindles

Fig. 15.2b, p.460

TM-52

III. Olfaction

3

1. Olfactory Recess

A. Olfactory Epithelium and Bulb

Fig. 15.3, p.461

TA-191

1. Olfactory Neurons

Fig. 15.4, p.462; Predict Quest. 3

TA-192

a. Bipolar Neurons in Olfactory Epithelium

b. Axons Project Through Cribriform Plate to Olfactory Bulb

c. Dendrites Enlarged into Olfactory Vesicles

d. Olfactory Hairs (Cilia) Extend into Mucus Interface with Inspired Air

2. Chemoreceptors are Membrane Receptor Molecules

3. Detectable Primary Odors (7 < N < 50)

4. Threshold for Detection

Clinical Note, p.461

5. Regeneration Through Proliferation of Basal Cells

Clinical Note, p.462

B. Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction

Fig. 15.4, p.462; Predict Quest. 4

TA-192

3

1. Structure of Olfactory Bulb

a. Mitral (Tufted) Cells

b. Association Neurons

2. Olfactory Tract Directly to Cortex

4,5

3. Olfactory Cortex

a. Lateral Olfactory Area - Conscious Perception

b. Medial Olfactory Area - Visceral & Emotional Reactions to Smell

c. Intermediate Olfactory Area - Modulation of Sensory Info. in Olfactory Bulb

IV. Taste (Gustation)

1. Sensory Structures are Taste Buds

Fig. 15.5, p.464

TM-53

2. Location in Papillae

a. Circumvallate

b. Fungiform

c. Foliate

d. Filiform

6

A. Histology of Taste Buds

a. Taste Pore

b. Gustatory Cells and Hairs

c. Supporting Cells

d. Nerve Fibers

B. Function of Taste

1. Four Primary Tastes (Sweet, Salt, Sour, Bitter)

2. Regions of Tongue Sensitivity

Fig. 15.6, p.465

3. Interactions with Olfaction

4. Thresholds for Tastes

a. Bitter Lowest Threshold

b. Salt and Sweet Highest Threshold

7

C. Neuronal Pathways for Taste

Fig. 15.7, p.466

1. Cranial Nerves to Medulla

a. Chorda Tympani Branch of Facial Nerve (VII) - Anterior 2/3 of Tongue

b. Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) - Posterior 1/3 of Tongue & Upper
Pharynx

c. Vagus Nerve (X) - Epiglottis

2. Nucleus of Tractus Solitarius of Medulla Oblongata to Thalamus

Fig. 15.7, p.466

3. Thalamus to Taste Area of Cortex - Extreme Inferior end of Postcentral Gyrus

V. Visual System

8

A. Accessory Structures

Fig. 15.8, p.466; Fig. 15.9, p.467

TA-193

1. Eyebrows

2. Eyelids (Palpebrae) & Eyelashes

a. Palpebral Fissure

b. Canthi

c. Caruncle

d. Five Tissue Layers

1). Thin Integument

2). Areolar Connective Tissue

3). Skeletal Muscle

a). Orbicularis Oculi

b). Levator Palpebrae Superioris

4). Tarsal Plate - Dense Connective Tissue

5). Palpebral Conjunctiva

e. Ciliary Glands and Stys

f. Meibomian Glands and Chalazions or Meibomian Cysts

3. Conjunctiva

Fig. 15.9, p.467; Clinical Note, p.466

TA-193

a. Mucous Membrane

b. Regions

1). Palpebral - Inner Eyelid

2). Bulbar - Anterior Eye

3). Fornices - Points of Connection

4. Lacrimal Apparatus

Fig. 15.10, p.468

a. Lacrimal Gland

Clinical Note, p.467

1). Parasympathetic Innervation, Facial Nerve (VII)

2). Superolateral Corner of Orbit

b. Nasolacrimal Duct System

Predict Quest. 5

1). Inferomedial Corner of Orbit

2). Parts

a). Lacrimal Canaliculi

b). Punctum

c). Lacrimal Papilla

d). Lacrimal Sac

e). Nasolacrimal Duct

5. Extrinsic Muscles of the Eye

Fig. 15.11, p.468; Fig. 15.12, p.469

a. Rectus Muscles

1. Superior (Oculomotor III)

2. Inferior (Abducens VI)

3. Medial (Oculomotor III)

4. Lateral (Oculomotor III)

b. Oblique Muscles

1. Superior (Trochlear IV)

2. Inferior (Oculomotor III)

c. "H" Test

9

B. Anatomy of the Eye

Fig. 15.13, p.469

TA-194

1. Fibrous Tunic

a. Sclera

b. Cornea

Predict Quest. 6 & Clinical Note, p.469

1). Transparent

2). Avascular

2. Vascular Tunic

Fig. 15.14, p.470

TA-195

a. Blood Supply = Branches off Ophthalmic Artery

b. Posterior Portion is Choroid Containing Dark Pigment

c. Anterior Portion

10

1). Ciliary Body

a). Ciliary Ring

b). Ciliary Processes & Aqueous Humor

c). Suspensory Ligaments to Lens

d). Ciliary Muscles - Outer/ Radial & Inner/ Circular Smooth Muscle

10

2). Iris

a). Pupil

Clinical Note, p.471

b). Circular Sphincter Pupillae Smooth Muscle

c). Radial Dilator Pupillae Smooth Muscle

3. Retina

Fig. 15.13, p.469

TA-194

a. Histology

1). Pigmented Retina - Cuboidal Epithelium

2). Sensory Retina

10

b. Ophthalmoscopic View

Fig. 15.15, p.471; Clinical Note, p.471

1). Macula Lutea

2). Fovea Centralis

3). Optic Disc is Blind Spot

11

4. Compartments of the Eye

Fig. 15.14, p.470

TA-195

a. Anterior Compartment

1). Anterior Chamber

2). Posterior Chamber

3). Aqueous Humor

a). Produced by Ciliary Processes

b). Returned at Canal of Schlemm

c). Build-up and Glaucoma

5. Lens

a. Specialized Cells = Lens Fibers

b. Crystallines Collect Intracellularly

c. Held in Place by Suspensory Ligaments from Ciliary Body

C. Functions of the Complete Eye

Clinical Focus, pp.482-484

12

1. Light

a. Visible Light (Wavelengths of 400 to 700 nm)

Fig. 15.16, p.472

b. Different Colors Correspond to Different Wavelengths

2. Light Refraction and Reflection

c. Light Can be Bent or Refracted

1). Concave Surfaces Cause Divergence of Light Rays

2). Convex Surfaces Cause Convergence of Light Rays; Focal
Point

Fig. 15.17, p.473

d. Light Reflects off of Non-Transparent Objects

3. Focusing of Images on the Retina

a. Cornea has Fixed Effect

b. Crystalline Lens has Variable Effect

1). Lens Shape Changed by Contraction and Relaxation of Ciliary Muscles

a). Relaxed Muscles = Flat Lens

b). Contracted Muscles = Rounded Lens

2). Distance to Retina is Fixed

c. Image Formed on Retina is Inverted

Fig. 15.17, p.473; Clinical Note, p.473

d. Emmetropia

1). Normal Resting Condition

2). Distant Objects (20+ Ft.) in Focus on Retina

3). Lens Flattened

e. Adjustments for Focussing on Near Objects

Predict Quest. 7

1). Lens Accommodation

2). Pupil Constriction

Clinical Note, p.474

3). Convergence

13

D. Structure and Function of the Retina

Fig. 15.18, p.475

TA-196

1. Rods

Table 15.3, p.476; Fig. 15.19a, p.476

TA-197

a. Bipolar Receptor Cells - Cylindrical Photosensitive Area

b. Vision in Reduced Light

c. Contain Rhodopsin

Fig. 15.19d, p.476

TA-197

14

2. Function of Rhodopsin

a. Cycle of Activity in Response to Light

Fig. 15.20, p.477

TM-54

b. Bleaching

c. Light and Dark Adaptation

Predict Quest. 8

3. Cones

Table 15.3, p.476; Fig. 15.19b, p.476

TA-197

a. Bipolar Receptor Cells - Conical Photosensitive Area

b. Color Vision and Visual Acuity

Fig. 15.21, p.478; Clinical Note, p.478

c. Contain Iodopsin - Different Opsins Sensitive to Different Wavelengths of Light

4. Distribution of Rods and Cones in the Retina

Predict Quest. 9

5. Inner Layers of the Retina

Fig. 15.18, p.475

TA-196

a. Photoreceptors

b. Bipolar Cells

c. Ganglion Cells - Axons Form Optic Nerve

Clinical Note, p.479

d. Association Neurons

1). Horizontal Cells

2). Amacrine Cells

3). Interplexiform Cells

15

D. Neuronal Pathways for Vision

Fig. 15.22, p.480

TA-198

1. Optic Nerves (II)

2. Optic Chiasma

Clinical Note, p.481

a. Crossing Over of Some Ganglion Cell Axons

b. Cells from Nasal (Medial) Retina Cross

c. Cells from Temporal (Lateral) Retina Do Not Cross

3. Optic Tracts

Fig. 15.22, p.480

TA-198

a. Most Axons Terminate at Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of
Thalamus

b. Remaining Axons Terminate in the Superior Colliculi

4. Optic Radiations from Lateral Geniculate Bodies to Visual Cortex of Occipital Lobes

15

5. Binocular Visi

Predict Quest. 10

VI. Hearing and Balance

A. Auditory Structures and Their Functions

Fig. 15.23, p.485; Clinical Note, p.485

TA-199

16

1. External Ear (Sound Collection and Defense Against Injury)

a. Auricle

Fig. 15.24, p.485

b. External Auditory Meatus

1). Hairs

2). Ceruminous Glands (Cerumen = Earwax)

c. Tympanic Membrane - Separation between External & Middle Ear

Clinical Note, p.500

16

2. Middle Ear (Amplification of Sound Waves)

Fig. 15.23, p.485

TA-199

a. Air Passages for Pressure Equilibration

1). To Mastoid Air Cells

2). Auditory (Eustachian) Tube to Pharynx

b. Auditory Ossicles

1). Malleus

2). Incus

3). Stapes

c. Membrane-Covered Openings to Inner Ear

1). Oval Window - Under Annular Ligament and Foot-Plate of Stapes

2). Round Window

3. Inner Ear (Location of Sensory Receptors)

Fig. 15.25, p.486

a. Bony Labyrinth and Perilymph

b. Membranous Labyrinth and Endolymph

c. Semicircular Canals

d. Vestibule

17

e. Cochlea

1). Membranes and Compartments

a). Oval Window

b). Scala Vestibuli

Fig. 15.26a, p.487

TA-200

c). Helicotrema

d). Scala Tympani

e). Round Window

f). Vestibular Membrane

g). Basilar Membrane

Fig. 15.26b,c, p.487

TA-200

1). Spiral Lamina

2). Spiral Ligament

h). Scala Media (Cochlear Duct)

c). Organ of Corti (Spiral Organ)

Fig. 15.26d, p.487; Fig. 15.27, p.488

TA-200

1). Hair Cells - Sensory Receptors

2). Nerve Endings

3). Cochlear Ganglion

B. Auditory Function

Table 15.4, p.490; Clinical Note, p.489

1. Properties of Sound Waves

Fig. 15.28, p.489

TM-55

a. Amplitude and Volume

b. Frequency and Pitch

c. Resonance and Timbre

Fig. 15.29, p.491

TM-56

2. External Ear (Collection and Direction)

3. Middle Ear (Conduction, Modulation & Amplification)

18

a. Sound Attenuation Reflex

b. Tensor Tympani and Stapedius Muscles

Fig. 15.30, p.491; Predict Quest. 11

4. Inner Ear (Sensory Reception)

Fig. 15.29, p.491; Clinical Note, p.492

a. Movements of Perilymph and Endolymph

b. Vibration of Basilar Membrane

Fig. 15.31, p.492

c. Stimulation of Hair Cells and Endocochlear Potential

Predict Quest. 12-13

18

C. Neuronal Pathways for Hearing

1. From Neurons Synapsing on Hair cells of Cochlea to Cochlear Ganglion

Fig. 15.32, p.493

TA-201

2. From Cochlear Ganglion Through Cochlear Portion of Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII) to Cochlear Nucleus in Superior Medulla Oblongata

3. From Cochlear Nucleus to Superior Olivary Nucleus

4. From Superior Olivary Nucleus

Clinical Focus, p.494

a. to Pathways Returning to Cochlea and Middle Ear

1). Modulation of Pitch Perception

2). Sound Attenuation Reflex

b. to Ascending Pathways in Lateral Meniscus which synapse in Inferior Colliculi

5. From Inferior Colliculi

a. to Superior Colliculus - Leading to Reflexive Head and Eye Movements

b. to Medial Geniculate Nucleus of Thalamus for Cerebral Processing of Sound

6. From Thalamus to Auditory Cortex

a. Dorsal Temporal Lobe

b. Superolateral Surface of Temporal Lobe

D. Balance

19

1. Static Labyrinth - Position of Head Relative to Gravity

Fig. 15.33, p.495

TA-202

a. Saccule

b. Utricle

c. Macular Sensory Apparatus

Fig. 15.33, p.595

TA-202

1). Hair Cells

a). Kinocilium

b). Stereocilia

2). Otoliths

Fig. 15.34, p.496

TA-203

3). Otolithic Membrane

19

2. Kinetic Labyrinth - Acceleratio

a. Three Semicircular Canals, Each Oriented in a Different
Plane

Fig. 15.35, p.497

TA-204

b. Parts

1). Ampulla

2). Crista Ampularis

3). Cupula

Fig. 15.36, p.497

TM-57

4). Hair Cells

c. Monitors Relative Movement of Endolymph

Clinical Note, p.496

20

E. Neuronal Pathways for Balance

Fig. 15.37, p.498

TA-205

1. From Neurons Synapsing on Sensory Hair Cells of Macula and Cristae Ampulares to Vestibular Ganglion

2. From Vestibular Ganglion Through Vestibular Portion of Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII) to Vestibular Nucleus in Medulla Oblongata

a. Joined by Fibers Carrying Ascending Proprioceptive
Information

b. Vestibulospinal Tract

3. From Vestibular Nucleus to a Variety of Locations in CNS

a. Posterior Ventral Nucleus and then to Vestibular Area of the Cortex

b. Nuclei of Cranial Nerves, Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV) and Abducens (VI)

1). Control Eye Movements

2). Responsible for Nystagmus

c. Descending Pathway - Vestibulospinal Tract

Clinical Focus, p.498