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| Information Center |
Table of Contents
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Chapter 1: A Framework for Human Physiology 1 The Scope of Human Physiology 2 Mechanism and Causality 2 A Society of Cells 3 Cells: The Basic Units of Living Organisms 3 Tissues 4 Organs and Organ Systems 5 The Internal Environment and Homeostasis 5 Body-Fluid Compartments 7 Summary 9 Key Terms 9 Review Questions 9 Part One: Basic Cell Functions Chapter 2: Chemical Composition of the Body 11 Atoms 12 Atomic Number 12 Atomic Weight 12 Atomic Composition of the Body 13 Molecules 13 Covalent Chemical Bonds 13 Molecular Shape 13 Ions 14 Free Radicals 15 Polar Molecules 16 Hydrogen Bonds 16 Water 17 Solutions 18 Molecular Solubility 18 Concentration 18 Hydrogen Ions and Acidity 20 Classes of Organic Molecules 21 Carbohydrates 21 Lipids 24 Proteins 25 Nucleic Acids 30 Summary 33 Key Terms 35 Review Questions 35 Chapter 3: Cell Structure 37 Microscopic Observations of Cells 38 Membranes 41 Membrane Structure 41 Membrane Junctions 43 Cell Organelles 45 Nucleus 45 Ribosomes 46 Endoplasmic Reticulum 46 Golgi Apparatus 47 Endosomes 48 Mitochondria 48 Lysosomes 49 Peroxisomes 49 Cytoskeleton 49 Summary 51 Key Terms 51 Review Questions 51 Chapter 4: Protein Activity and Cellular Metabolism 53 Section A Protein Binding Sites 54 Binding Site Characteristics 54 Chemical Specificity 54 Affinity 55 Saturation 56 Competition 57 Regulation of Binding Site Characteristics 57 Allosteric Modulation 57 Covalent Modulation 59 Section A Summary 59 Section A Key Terms 60 Section A Review Questions 60 Section B Enzymes and Chemical Energy 60 Chemical Reactions 60 Determinants of Reaction Rates 61 Reversible and Irreversible Reactions 61 Law of Mass Action 62 Enzymes 62 Cofactors 63 Regulation of Enzyme-Mediated Reactions 64 Substrate Concentration 64 Enzyme Concentration 64 Enzyme Activity 65 Multienzyme Metabolic Pathways 66 ATP 67 Section B Summary 69 Section B Key Terms 69 Section B Review Questions 70 Section C Metabolic Pathways 70 Cellular Energy Transfer 70 Glycolysis 70 Krebs Cycle 73 Oxidative Phosphorylation 75 Reactive Oxygen Species 77 Carbohydrate, Fat, and Protein Metabolism 77 Carbohydrate Metabolism 77 Fat Metabolism 80 Protein and Amino Acid Metabolism 82 Fuel Metabolism Summary 84 Essential Nutrients 85 Vitamins 86 Section C Summary 87 Section C Key Terms 88 Section C Review Questions 88 Chapter 4 Thought Questions 88 Chapter 5: Genetic Information and Protein Synthesis 91 Genetic Code 92 Protein Synthesis: 94 Transcription: mRNA Synthesis 94 Translation: Polypeptide Synthesis 96 Regulation of Protein Synthesis 99 Protein Degradation 100 Protein Secretion 100 Replication and Expression of Genetic Information 103 Replication of DNA 103 Cell Division 104 Mutation 107 Cancer 109 Genetic Engineering 110 Summary 112 Key Terms 113 Review Questions 114 Clinical Terms 114 Thought Questions 114 Chapter 6: Movement of Molecules Across Cell Membranes 115 Diffusion 116 Magnitude and Direction of Diffusion 116 Diffusion Rate versus Distance 118 Diffusion through Membranes 118 Mediated-Transport Systems 122 Facilitated Diffusion 124 Active Transport 124 Osmosis 130 Extracellular Osmolarity and Cell Volume 132 Endocytosis and Exocytosis 134 Endocytosis 134 Exocytosis 135 Epithelial Transport 136 Glands 138 Summary 139 Key Terms 140 Review Questions 140 Thought Questions 141 Part Two: Biological Control Systems Chapter 7: Homeostatic Mechanisms and Cellular Communication 143 Section A Homeostatic Control Systems 144 General Characteristics 144 Feedforward Regulation 147 Components of Homeostatic Control Systems 147 Reflexes 147 Local Homeostatic Responses 149 Intercellular Chemical Messengers 150 Paracrine/Autocrine Agents 150 Conclusion 152 Processes Related to Homeostasis 152 Acclimatization 152 Biological Rhythms 153 Regulated Cell Death: Apoptosis 154 Aging 155 Balance in the Homeostasis of Chemicals 156 Section A Summary 157 Section A Key Terms 158 Section A Review Questions 158 Section B Mechanisms by which Chemical Messengers Control Cells 159 Receptors 159 Regulation of Receptors 161 Signal Transduction Pathways 162 Pathways Initiated by Intracellular Receptors 162 Pathways Initiated by Plasma-Membrane Receptors 163 Receptors and Gene Transcription 170 Cessation of Activity in Signal Transduction Pathways 171 Section B Summary 172 Section B Key Terms 173 Section B Review Questions 173 Chapter 7 Clinical Terms 174 Chapter 7 Thought Questions 174 Chapter 8: Neural Control Mechanisms 175 Section A Neural Tissue 176 Structure and Maintenance of Neurons 176 Functional Classes of Neurons 179 Glial Cells 180 Neural Growth and Regeneration 181 Section A Summary 182 Section A Key Terms 182 Section A Review Questions 182 Section B Membrane Potentials 182 Basic Principles of Electricity 182 The Resting Membrane Potential 183 Graded Potentials and Action Potentials 188 Graded Potentials 188 Action Potentials 189 Section B Summary 196 Section B Key Terms 197 Section B Review Questions 197 Section C Synapses 197 Functional Anatomy of Synapses 198 Excitatory Chemical Synapses 199 Inhibitory Chemical Synapses 200 Activation of the Postsynaptic Cell 200 Synaptic Effectiveness 202 Modification of Synaptic Transmission by Drugs and Disease 203 Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators 204 Acetylcholine 205 Biogenic Amines 205 Amino Acid Neurotransmitters 207 Neuropeptides 207 Miscellaneous 208 Neuroeffector Communication 208 Section C Summary 208 Section C Key Terms 209 Section C Review Questions 209 Section D Structure of the Nervous System 209 Central Nervous System: Spinal Cord 209 Central Nervous System: Brain 210 Brainstem 212 Cerebellum 212 Forebrain 212 Peripheral Nervous System 215 Autonomic Nervous System 217 Blood Supply, Blood-Brain Barrier Phenomena, and Cerebrospinal Fluid 222 Section D Summary 223 Section D Key Terms 224 Section D Review Questions 224 Chapter 8 Clinical Terms 225 Chapter 8 Thought Questions 225 Chapter 9: The Sensory Systems 227 Section A General Principles 228 Receptors 228 The Receptor Potential 229 Neural Pathways in Sensory Systems 230 Sensory Units 230 Ascending Pathways 230 Association Cortex and Perceptual Processing 232 Factors That Affect Perception 232 Primary Sensory Coding 233 Stimulus Type 233 Stimulus Intensity 234 Stimulus Location 234 Stimulus Duration 236 Central Control of Afferent Information 237 Section A Summary 238 Section A Key Terms 239 Section A Review Questions 239 Section B Specific Sensory Systems 239 Somatic Sensation 239 Touch-Pressure 239 Sense of Posture and Movement 240 Temperature 240 Pain 240 Vision 243 Light 243 The Optics of Vision 244 Photoreceptor Cells 246 Neural Pathways of Vision 248 Color Vision 249 Eye Movement 250 Hearing 250 Sound 250 Sound Transmission in the Ear 251 Hair Cells of the Organ of Corti 254 Neural Pathways in Hearing 255 Vestibular System 256 The Semicircular Canals 256 The Utricle and Saccule 257 Vestibular Information and Dysfunction 257 Chemical Senses 258 Taste 258 Smell 258 Section B Summary 260 Section B Key Terms 261 Section B Review Questions 261 Chapter 9 Clinical Terms 261 Chapter 9 Thought Questions 262 Chapter 10: Principles of Hormonal Control Systems 263 Hormone Structures and Synthesis 266 Amine Hormones 266 Peptide Hormones 267 Steroid Hormones 267 Hormone Transport in the Blood 270 Hormone Metabolism and Excretion 270 Mechanisms of Hormone Action 272 Hormone Receptors 272 Events Elicited by Hormone-Receptor Binding 272 Pharmacological Effects of Hormones 273 Inputs That Control Hormone Secretion 271 Control by Plasma Concentrations of Mineral Ions or Organic Nutrients 274 Control by Neurons 274 Control by Other Hormones 275 Control Systems Involving the Hypothalamus and Pituitary 275 Posterior Pituitary Hormones 275 The Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary 275 Candidate Hormones 284 Types of Endocrine Disorders 285 Hyposecretion 285 Hypersecretion 285 Hyporesponsiveness and Hyperresponsiveness 286 Summary 286 Key Terms 287 Review Questions 288 Clinical Terms 288 Thought Questions 288 Chapter 11: Muscle 291 Section A Skeletal Muscle 292 Structure 292 Molecular Mechanisms of Contraction 295 Sliding-Filament Mechanism 295 Roles of Troponin, Tropomyosin, and Calcium in Contraction 301 Excitation-Contraction Coupling 302 Membrane Excitation: The Neuromuscular Junction 305 Mechanics of Single-Fiber Contraction 308 Twitch Contractions 308 Load-Velocity Relation 309 Frequency-Tension Relation 309 Length-Tension Relation 311 Skeletal-Muscle Energy Metabolism 312 Muscle Fatigue 313 Types of Skeletal-Muscle Fibers 314 Whole-Muscle Contraction 316 Control of Muscle Tension 317 Control of Shortening Velocity 318 Muscle Adaptation to Exercise 318 Lever Action of Muscles and Bones 319 Skeletal-Muscle Disease 321 Section A Summary 322 Section A Key Terms 323 Section A Review Questions 324 Section B Smooth Muscle 324 Structure 325 Contraction and Its Control 325 Cross-Bridge Activation 325 Sources of Cytosolic Calcium 327 Membrane Activation 328 Types of Smooth Muscle 330 Section B Summary 331 Section B Key Terms 332 Section B Review Questions 332 Chapter 11 Clinical Terms 332 Chapter 11 Thought Questions 332 Chapter 12: Control of Body Movement 333 Motor Control Hierarchy 333 Voluntary and Involuntary Actions 336 Local Control of Motor Neurons 337 Interneurons 337 Local Afferent Input 337 The Brain Motor Centers and the Descending Pathways They Control 342 Cerebral Cortex 342 Subcortical and Brainstem Nuclei 343 Cerebellum 344 Descending Pathways 345 Muscle Tone 346 Abnormal Muscle Tone 346 Maintenance of Upright Posture and Balance 347 Walking 349 Summary 349 Key Terms 350 Review Questions 350 Clinical Terms 350 Thought Questions 350 Chapter 13: Consciousness and Behavior 351 States of Consciousness 352 Electroencephalogram 352 The Waking State 353 Sleep 353 Neural Substrates of States of Consciousness 354 Coma and Brain Death 355 Conscious Experiences 357 Directed Attention 357 Neural Mechanisms for Conscious Experiences 358 Motivation and Emotion 360 Motivation 360 Emotion 361 Altered States of Consciousness 362 Schizophrenia 362 The Mood Disorders: Depressions and Bipolar Disorders 363 Psychoactive Substances, Dependence, and Tolerance 363 Learning and Memory 365 Memory 366 The Neural Basis of Learning and Memory 366 Cerebral Dominance and Language 368 Conclusion 370 Summary 370 Key Terms 371 Review Questions 371 Clinical Terms 371 Thought Questions 371 Part Three Coordinated Body Functions Chapter 14: Circulation 373 Section A Blood 374 Plasma 375 The Blood Cells 375 Erythrocytes 375 Leukocytes 379 Platelets 380 Regulation of Blood Cell Production 380 Section A Summary 382 Section A Key Terms 382 Section A Review Questions 382 Section B Overall Design of the Cardiovascular System 382 Pressure, Flow, and Resistance 384 Section B Summary 387 Section B Key Terms 387 Section B Review Questions 387 Section C The Heart 387 Anatomy 387 Cardiac Muscle 389 Heartbeat Coordination 390 Sequence of Excitation 390 Cardiac Action Potentials and Excitation of the SA Node 392 The Electrocardiogram 393 Excitation-Contraction Coupling 394 Refractory Period of the Heart 395 Mechanical Events of the Cardiac Cycle 396 Mid-Diastole to Late Diastole 396 Systole 398 Early Diastole 399 Pulmonary Circulation Pressures 399 Heart Sounds 400 The Cardiac Output 400 Control of Heart Rate 400 Control of Stroke Volume 401 Measurement of Cardiac Function 405 Section C Summary 405 Section C Key Terms 406 Section C Review Questions 406 Section D The Vascular System 407 Arteries 407 Arterial Blood Pressure 407 Measurement of Systemic Arterial Pressure 409 Arterioles 410 Local Controls 411 Extrinsic Controls 413 Endothelial Cells and Vascular Smooth Muscle 414 Arteriolar Control in Specific Organs 415 Capillaries 415 Anatomy of the Capillary Network 417 Velocity of Capillary Blood Flow 417 Diffusion across the Capillary Wall: Exchanges of Nutrients and Metabolic End Products 419 Bulk Flow across the Capillary Wall: Distribution of the Extracellular Fluid 420 Veins 422 Determinants of Venous Pressure 423 The Lymphatic System 424 Mechanism of Lymph Fow 425 Section D Summary 426 Section D Key Terms 427 Section D Review Questions 427 Section E Integration of Cardiovascular Function: Regulation of Systemic Arterial Presseure 428 Baroreceptor Reflexes 432 Arterial Baroreceptors 432 The Medullary Cardiovascular Center 434 Operation of the Arterial Baroreceptor Reflex 434 Other Baroreceptors 436 Blood Volume and Long-Term Regulation of Arterial Pressure 436 Other Cardiovascular Reflexes and Responses 436 Section E Summary 438 Section E Key Terms 438 Section E Review Questions 438 Section F Cardiovascular Patterns in Health and Disease 438 Hemorrhage and Other Causes of Hypotension 438 Shock 439 The Upright Posture 441 Exercise 442 Maximal Oxygen Consumption and Training 444 Hypertension 446 Heart Failure 446 Coronary Artery Disease and Heart Attacks 449 Section F Summary 451 Section F Key Terms 452 Section F Review Questions 452 Section G Hemostasis: The Prevention of Blood Loss 452 Formation of a Platelet Plug 453 Blood Coagulation: Clot Formation 454 Anticlotting Systems 458 Factors That Oppose Clot Formation 458 The Fibrinolytic System 458 Anticlotting Drugs 459 Section G Summary 460 Section G Key Terms 461 Section G Review Questions 461 Chapter 14 Clinical Terms 461 Chapter 14 Thought Questions 461 Chapter 15: Respiration 463 Organization of the Respiratory System 464 The Airways and Blood Vessels 464 Site of Gas Exchange: The Alveoli 466 Relation of the Lungs to the Thoracic (Chest) Wall 467 Ventilation and Lung Mechanics 468 The Stable Balance between Breaths 469 Inspiration 470 Expiration 471 Lung Compliance 471 Airway Resistance 474 Lung Volumes and Capacities 475 Alveolar Ventilation 476 Exchange of Gases in Alveoli and Tissues 478 Partial Pressures of Gases 478 Alveolar Gas Pressures 480 Alveolar-Blood Gas Exchange 482 Matching of Ventilation and Blood Flow in Alveoli 483 Gas Exchange in the Tissues 483 Transport of Oxygen in Blood 483 Effect of PO2 on Hemoglobin Saturation 484 Effects of Blood PCO2, Hð+ Concentration, Temperature, and DPG Concentration on Hemoglobin Saturation 487 Transport of Carbon Dioxide in Blood 488 Transport of Hydrogen Ions between Tissues and Lungs 489 Control of Respiration 490 Neural Generation of Rhythmical Breathing 490 Control of Ventilation by PO2, PCO2, and Hð+ Concentration 491 Control of Ventilation during Exercise 495 Other Ventilatory Responses 497 Hypoxia 498 Emphysema 499 Acclimatization to High Altitude 499 Nonrespiratory Functions of the Lungs 500 Summary 500 Key Terms 502 Review Questions 503 Clinical Terms 504 Thought Questions 504 Chapter 16 The Kidneys and Regulation of Water and Inorganic Ions 505 Section A Basic Principles of Renal Physiology 506 Renal Functions 506 Structure of the Kidneys and Urinary System 507 Basic Renal Processes 510 Glomerular Filtration 512 Tubular Reabsorption 513 Tubular Secretion 515 Metabolism by the Tubules 516 Regulation of Membrane Channels and Transporters 516 "Division of Labor" in the Tubules 516 The Concept of Renal Clearance 516 Micturition 517 Section A Summary 519 Section A Key Terms 519 Section A Review Questions 520 Section B Regulation of Sodium, Water, and Potassium Balance 520 Total-Body Balance of Sodium and Water 520 Basic Renal Processes for Sodium and Water 521 Primary Active Sodium Reabsorption 521 Coupling of Water Reabsorption to Sodium Reabsorption 521 Urine Concentration: The Countercurrent Multiplier System 523 Renal Sodium Regulation 525 Control of GFR 526 Control of Sodium Reabsorption 526 Renal Water Regulation 530 Baroreceptor Control of Vasopressin Secretion 531 Osmoreceptor Control of Vasopressin Secretion 531 A Summary Example: The Response to Sweating 532 Thirst and Salt Appetite 532 Potassium Regulation 534 Renal Regulation of Potassium 535 Section B Summary 536 Section B Key Terms 537 Section B Review Questions 537 Section C Calcium Regulation 538 Effector Sites for Calcium Homeostasis 538 Bone 538 Kidneys 539 Gastrointestinal Tract 539 Hormonal Controls 539 Parathyroid Hormone 540 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 541 Calcitonin 541 Metabolic Bone Diseases 542 Section C Summary 542 Section C Key Terms 542 Section C Review Questions 542 Section D Hydrogen-Ion Regulation 543 Sources of Hydrogen-Ion Gain or Loss 543 Buffering of Hydrogen Ions in the Body 544 Integration of Homeostatic Controls 544 Renal Mechanisms 544 Bicarbonate Handling 545 Addition of New Bicarbonate to the Plasma 545 Renal Responses to Acidosis and Alkalosis 547 Classification of Acidosis and Alkalosis 547 Section D Summary 548 Section D Key Terms 548 Section D Review Questions 548 Section E Diuretics and Kidney Disease 549 Diuretics 549 Kidney Disease 549 Hemodialysis, Peritoneal Dialysis, and Transplantation 550 Section E Summary 551 Chapter 16 Clinical Terms 551 Chapter 16 Thought Questions 551 Chapter 17: The Digestion and Absorption of Food 553 Overview: Functions of the Gastrointestinal Organs 555 Structure of the Gastrointestinal Tract Wall 559 Digestion and Absorption 562 Carbohydrate 562 Protein 562 Fat 563 Vitamins 565 Water and Minerals 565 Regulation of Gastrointestinal Processes 566 Basic Principles 566 Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus 569 Stomach 571 Pancreatic Secretions 578 Bile Secretion 579 Small Intestine 581 Large Intestine 583 Pathophysiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract 584 Ulcers 584 Vomiting 585 Gallstones 585 Lactose Intolerance 586 Constipation and Diarrhea 586 Summary 587 Key Terms 590 Review Questions 590 Clinical Terms 591 Thought Questions 591 Chapter 18: Regulation of Organic Metabolism, Growth, and Energy Balance 593 Section A Control and Integration of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat Metabolism 594 Events of the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States 594 Absorptive State 594 Postabsorptive State 597 Endocrine and Neural Control of the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States 599 Insulin 600 Glucagon 603 Epinephrine and Sympathetic Nerves to Liver and Adipose Tissue 604 Other Hormones 604 Summary of Hormonal Controls 606 Fuel Homeostasis in Exercise and Stress 606 Diabetes Mellitus 607 Hypoglycemia as a Cause of Symptoms 610 Regulation of Plasma Cholesterol 610 Section A Summary 612 Section A Key Terms 613 Section A Review Questions 613 Section B Control of Growth 613 Bone Growth 613 Environmental Factors Influencing Growth 613 Hormonal Influences on Growth 613 Growth Hormone and Insulin-like Growth Factors 615 Thyroid Hormones 616 Insulin 616 Sex Hormones 617 Cortisol 617 Compensatory Growth 618 Section B Summary 618 Section B Key Terms 618 Section B Review Questions 618 Section C Regulation of Total-Body Energy Balance and Temperature 619 Basic Concepts of Energy Expenditure 619 Metabolic Rate 619 Regulation of Total-Body Energy Stores 621 Control of Food Intake 622 Overweight and Obesity 623 Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia 625 What Should We Eat? 625 Regulation of Body Temperature 626 Mechanisms of Heat Loss or Gain 626 Temperature-Regulating Reflexes 627 Temperature Acclimatization 630 Fever and Hyperthermia 630 Section C Summary 632 Section C Key Terms 633 Section C Review Questions 633 Chapter 18 Clinical Terms 633 Chapter 18 Thought Questions 634 Chapter 19: Reproduction 635 Section A General Terminology and Concepts 636 General Principles of Gametogenesis 637 Section A Summary 639 Section A Key Terms 639 Section A Review Question 639 Section B Male Reproductive Physiology 639 Anatomy 639 Spermatogenesis 641 Transport of Sperm 644 Erection 644 Ejaculation 646 Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive Functions 646 Control of the Testes 646 Testosterone 647 Section B Summary 648 Section B Key Terms 648 Section B Review Questions 649 Section C Female Reproductive Physiology 649 Anatomy 649 Ovarian Function 651 Oogenesis 651 Follicle Growth 652 Formation of the Corpus Luteum 653 Sites of Secretion of Ovarian Hormones 654 Control of Ovarian Function 654 Follicle Development and Estrogen Secretion during the Early and Middle Follicular Phases 656 LH Surge and Ovulation 657 The Luteal Phase 658 Uterine Changes in the Menstrual Cycle 659 Other Effects of Estrogen and Progesterone 661 Androgens in Women 662 Female Sexual Response 663 Pregnancy 663 Egg Transport 663 Sperm Transport and Capacitation 663 Fertilization 664 Early Development, Implantation, and Placentation 665 Hormonal and Other Changes during Pregnancy 668 Parturition 669 Lactation 673 Contraception 677 Infertility 677 Section C Summary 678 Section C Key Terms 679 Section C Review Questions 679 Section D The Chronology of Reproductive Function 680 Sex Determination 680 Sex Differentiation 680 Differentiation of the Gonads 680 Differentiation of Internal and External Genitalia 681 Sexual Differentiation of the Central Nervous System and Homosexuality 681 Puberty 681 Menopause 683 Section D Summary 684 Section D Key Terms 684 Section D Review Questions 685 Chapter 19 Clinical Terms 685 Chapter 19 Thought Questions 685 Chapter 20: Defense Mechanisms of the Body 687 Section A Immunology: Defenses Against Foreign Matter 688 Cells Mediating Immune Defenses 688 Cytokines 690 Nonspecific Immune Defenses 690 Defenses at Body Surfaces 691 Inflammation 691 Interferons 695 Specific Immune Defenses 696 Overview 696 Lymphoid Organs and Lymphocyte Origins 697 Functions of B Cells and T Cells 698 Lymphocyte Receptors 701 Antigen Presentation to T Cells 702 NK Cells 704 Development of Immune Tolerance 704 Antibody-Mediated Immune Responses: Defenses against Bacteria, Extracellular Viruses, and Toxins 705 Defenses against Virus-Infected Cells and Cancer Cells 710 Systemic Manifestations of Infection 712 Factors That Alter the Body's Resistance to Infection 714 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) 715 Antibiotics 716 Harmful Immune Responses 716 Graft Rejection 716 Transfusion Reactions 717 Allergy (Hypersensitivity) 718 Autoimmune Disease 720 Excessive Inflammatory Responses 720 Section A Summary 722 Section A Key Terms 724 Section A Review Questions 725 Section B Toxicology: The Metabolism of Environmental Chemicals 725 Absorption 727 Storage Sites 727 Excretion 727 Biotransformation 727 Section B Summary 728 Section B Key Terms 728 Section B Review Questions 728 Section C Resistance to Stress 728 Functions of Cortisol in Stress 729 Functions of the Sympathetic Nervous System in Stress 730 Other Hormones Released During Stress 730 Psychological Stress and Disease 731 Section C Summary 731 Section C Key Terms 731 Section C Review Questions 732 Chapter 20 Clinical Terms 732 Chapter 20 Thought Questions 732 Appendix A Answers to Thought Questions 733 Appendix B Glossary 743 Appendix C English and Metric Units 776 Appendix D Electrophysiology Equations 777 Appendix E Outline of Exercise Physiology 778 Credits 779 References for Figure Adaptations 780 Index 781 
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