Contents
Readings xi
Preface xii
Introduction
A Human Perspective 1
I.1 Biologically Speaking 2
Who Are We? 2
How Do We Fit In? 2
I.2 The Process of Science 8
Scientific Theories in Biology 8
The Scientific Method Has Steps 8
The Discovery of Lyme Disease 9
Scientists Use Controlled
Experiments 10
I.3 Science and Social Responsibility 11
Human Organization 15
Chapter 1
Chemistry of Life 15
1.1 Elements and Atoms 16
Atoms 16
Isotopes 17
1.2 Molecules and Compounds 19
Ionic Reactions 19
Covalent Reactions 20
1.3 Water and Living Things 21
Properties of Water 21
Acidic and Basic Solutions 23
The pH Scale 24
1.4 Molecules of Life 26
1.5 Carbohydrates 27
Simple Carbohydrates 27
Starch and Glycogen 28
Cellulose 28
1.6 Lipids 29
Fats and Oils 29
Soaps 29
Phospholipids 30
Steroids 30
1.7 Proteins 31
Peptides 32
Levels of Protein Organization 32
1.8 Nucleic Acids 34
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) 35
Chapter 2
Cell Structure and Function 41
2.1 Cell Size 42
Microscopy and Cell Structure 42
2.2 Cellular Organization 44
Plasma Membrane 46
The Nucleus 49
Ribosomes 50
Membranous Canals and Vesicles 50
Mitochondria 52
Cytoskeleton 53
2.3 Cellular Metabolism 54
Enzymes and Coenzymes 54
Cellular Respiration and Metabolic Pathways 55
Chapter 3
Introduction to
Homeostasis 61
3.1 Types of Tissues 62
Epithelial Tissue 62
Connective Tissue 64
Muscular Tissue 67
Nervous Tissue 68
3.2 Body Cavities and Body
Membranes 69
Body Membranes 69
3.3 Organ Systems 70
Maintenance of the Body 70
Integumentary System 70
Support and Movement 70
Integration and Control
of the Body 70
Continuance of the Species 70
3.4 Skin as an Organ System 72
Regions of the Skin 72
Accessory Structures of the Skin 73
3.5 Homeostasis 76
Coordination of Organ Systems 77
Maintenance of the Human Body 81
Chapter 4
Digestive System
and Nutrition 81
4.1 The Digestive System 82
The Mouth 82
The Pharynx 84
The Esophagus 84
The Wall of the Digestive Tract 85
The Stomach 86
The Small Intestine 87
Regulation of Digestive Secretions 88
The Large Intestine 88
4.2 Three Accessory Organs 90
The Pancreas 90
The Liver 90
The Gallbladder 91
4.3 Digestive Enzymes 92
Conditions for Digestion 93
4.4 Homeostasis 95
4.5 Nutrition 95
Carbohydrates 96
Proteins 97
Lipids 98
Vitamins 100
Minerals 102
Eating Disorders 104
Chapter 5
Composition and Function
of the Blood 109
5.1 The Red Blood Cells 111
The Life Cycle of Red Blood Cells 113
5.2 The White Blood Cells 115
Types of White Blood Cells 115
5.3 Blood Clotting 116
Stages of Blood Clotting 116
Hemophilia 116
5.4 Plasma 118
The Plasma Proteins 118
5.5 Capillary Exchange 118
Blood Capillaries 118
Lymphatic Capillaries 119
5.6 Blood Typing 120
ABO System 120
Rh System 120
Chapter 6
Cardiovascular System 125
6.1 The Blood Vessels 126
The Arteries 126
The Capillaries 127
The Veins 127
6.2 The Heart 128
Passage of Blood Through
the Heart 129
The Heartbeat 130
The Electrocardiogram 131
6.3 Features of the Cardiovascular
System 132
Pulse 132
Blood Flow 132
6.4 The Vascular Pathways 134
The Pulmonary Circuit 134
The Systemic Circuit 134
6.5 Cardiovascular Disorders 136
Hypertension 136
Atherosclerosis 137
Stroke, Heart Attack, and
Aneurysm 138
Heart Transplants and Other Treatments 139
Dilated and Inflamed Veins 139
6.6 Homeostasis 140
Chapter 7
Lymphatic System
and Immunity 145
7.1 Lymphatic System 146
Lymphatic Vessels 146
Lymphoid Organs 147
7.2 Nonspecific Defenses 148
Barring Entry 148
Inflammatory Reaction 148
Natural Killer Cells 150
Protective Proteins 150
7.3 Specific Defenses 150
B Cells and Antibody-Mediated Immunity 151
T Cells and Cell-Mediated
Immunity 154
Activation of T Cells 154
7.4 Induced Immunity 156
Active Immunity 156
Passive Immunity 157
Cytokines and Immunity 157
Monoclonal Antibodies 158
7.5 Immunity Side Effects 158
Allergies 158
Autoimmune Diseases 160
Tissue Rejection 160
7.6 Homeostasis 160
Chapter 8
Respiratory System 165
8.1 Respiratory Tract 166
The Nose 167
The Pharynx 167
The Larynx 168
The Trachea 168
The Bronchial Tree 169
The Lungs 169
8.2 Mechanism of Breathing 170
Respiratory Volumes 170
Inspiration and Expiration 172
8.3 Gas Exchanges in the Body 174
External Respiration 174
Internal Respiration 174
Binding Capacity of
Hemoglobin 176
8.4 Respiration and Health 177
Upper Respiratory Tract Infections 177
Lower Respiratory Tract Disorders 179
8.5 Homeostasis 183
Chapter 9
Urinary System
and Excretion 187
9.1 Urinary System 188
Urinary Organs 188
Urination and the Nervous System 188
Functions of the Urinary System 189
9.2 Kidneys 191
Anatomy of a Nephron 192
9.3 Urine Formation 195
Glomerular Filtration 195
Tubular Reabsorption 195
Tubular Secretion 195
9.4 Maintaining Water-Salt Balance 196
Reabsorption of Water 196
Reabsorption of Salt 197
9.5 Maintaining Acid-Base Balance 199
9.6 Homeostasis 199
9.7 Problems with Kidney Function 200
Hemodialysis 200
Movement and Support
in Humans 205
Chapter 10
Skeletal System 205
10.1 Tissues of the Skeletal System 206
Bone 206
Cartilage 206
Fibrous Connective Tissue 206
Structure of a Long Bone 206
10.2 Bone Growth and Repair 208
Bone Development and Growth 208
Remodeling of Bones 209
Bone Repair 209
10.3 Bones of the Skeleton 211
Classification of the Bones 211
The Axial Skeleton 212
The Hyoid Bone 213
The Vertebral Column 214
The Rib Cage 215
The Appendicular Skeleton 216
10.4 Articulations 218
Movements Permitted by
Synovial Joints 219
10.5 Homeostasis 221
Chapter 11
Muscular System 225
11.1 Skeletal Muscles 226
Muscles Work in Pairs 227
Skeletal Muscles of the Body 228
11.2 Mechanism of Muscle Fiber Contraction 231
Overview of Muscular Contraction 231
Muscle Innervation 232
11.3 Whole Muscle Contraction 234
Basic Laboratory Observations 234
Muscle Tone in the Body 234
Recruitment and the Strength of Contraction 234
11.4 Energy for Muscle Contraction 235
Oxygen Debt 235
Athletics and Muscle Contraction 237
11.5 Homeostasis 238
Integration and Coordination in
Humans 245
Chapter 12
Nervous System 245
12.1 Neurons and How They Work 246
Neuron Structure 246
Nerve Impulse 248
Propagation of an Action Potential 248
Transmission Across a Synapse 251
12.2 Peripheral Nervous System 252
Somatic System 253
Autonomic System 255
12.3 Central Nervous System 256
The Spinal Cord 256
The Brain 258
12.4 The Cerebral Hemispheres 260
The Cerebral Cortex 260
White Matter 261
12.5 Higher Mental Functions 262
Learning and Memory 262
Language and Speech 263
12.6 Homeostasis 265
12.7 Drug Abuse 265
Alcohol 266
Nicotine 266
Cocaine 266
Heroin 267
Marijuana 267
Methamphetamine (Ice) 267
Chapter 13
Senses 271
13.1 Sensory Receptors and Sensations 272
Types of Sensory Receptors 272
How Sensation Occurs 272
Types of Senses 273
13.2 Somatic Senses 274
Proprioception 274
Cutaneous Senses 275
13.3 Chemical Senses 276
Sense of Taste 276
Sense of Smell 277
13.4 Sense of Vision 278
Anatomy of the Eye 278
Focusing 279
Photoreceptors 280
Integration of Visual Signals
in the Retina 281
Integration of Visual Signals
in the Brain 282
Abnormalities of the Eye 283
13.5 Sense of Hearing 286
Anatomy of the Ear 286
Process of Hearing 286
13.6 Sense of Balance 289
Chapter 14
Endocrine System 293
14.1 Environmental Signals 294
The Action of Hormones 295
Endocrine Glands 297
14.2 Hypothalamus and Pituitary
Gland 298
Posterior Pituitary 298
Anterior Pituitary 298
14.3 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 301
Thyroid Gland 301
Parathyroid Glands 302
14.4 Adrenal Glands 303
Mineralocorticoids 304
Glucocorticoids 304
Malfunction of the Adrenal Cortex 305
14.5 Pancreas 306
Diabetes Mellitus 307
14.6 Other Endocrine Glands 309
Testes and Ovaries 309
Pineal Gland 309
Thymus Gland 309
Nontraditional Sources 309
14.7 Homeostasis 310
Reproduction in
Humans 317
Chapter 15
Reproductive System 317
15.1 Male Reproductive System 318
Orgasm in Males 319
The Male Gonads, the Testes 320
Hormonal Regulation in Males 321
15.2 Female Reproductive System 322
The Genital Tract 322
The External Genitals 323
Orgasm in Females 323
15.3 Female Hormone Levels 325
The Ovarian Cycle 325
The Uterine Cycle 327
Fertilization and Pregnancy 327
Estrogen and Progesterone 328
15.4 Development of Male and
Female Sex Organs 328
15.5 Control of Reproduction 330
Birth Control Methods 330
Infertility 333
15.6 Homeostasis 334
Chapter 16
Sexually Transmitted
Diseases 339
16.1 Viral in Origin 340
HIV Infections 342
Genital Warts 343
Herpes Infections 344
Hepatitis Infections 345
16.2 Bacterial in Origin 346
Chlamydia 348
Gonorrhea 349
Syphilis 350
16.3 Other Sexually Transmitted
Diseases 351
Vaginitis 351
Pubic Lice (Crabs) 351
AIDS Supplement 355
S.1 Origin and Scope of the
AIDS Pandemic 356
Prevalence of AIDS Today 356
S.2 Phases of an HIV Infection 358
Category A: Acute Phase 358
Category B: Chronic Infection 359
Category C: AIDS 359
S.3 Treatment for HIV 360
HIV Structure and Life Cycle 360
Drug Therapy 361
Vaccines 361
S.4 Preventing Transmission of HIV 362
Chapter 17
Development and Aging 363
17.1 Fertilization 364
17.2 Human Development before Birth 366
Processes of Development 366
Extraembryonic Membranes 368
Fetal Circulation 368
Embryonic Development 372
Fetal Development 374
17.3 Birth 376
Stage 1 376
Stage 2 377
Stage 3 377
Female Breast and Lactation 377
17.4 Human Development after Birth 378
Theories of Aging 378
Effect of Age on Body Systems 379
Human Genetics 385
Chapter 18
Chromosomal Inheritance 385
18.1 Chromosomal Inheritance 386
Down Syndrome 387
Cri du Chat Syndrome 388
Fragile X Syndrome 388
Sex Chromosomal Inheritance 388
18.2 Human Life Cycle 390
18.3 Mitosis 391
Cell Cycle 391
Overview of Mitosis: 2n ’ 2n 391
Stages of Mitosis 392
18.4 Meiosis 394
Overview of Meiosis: 2n ’ 2n 394
The Importance of Meiosis 395
Stages of Meiosis 396
The First Division 396
The Second Division 396
Nondisjunction 398
Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis 399
Chapter 19
Genes and Medical
Genetics 403
19.1 Genotype and Phenotype 404
19.2 Dominant/Recessive Traits 405
Forming the Gametes 405
Figuring the Odds 406
Dominant Disorders 407
Recessive Disorders 408
Pedigree Charts 409
19.3 Polygenic Traits 411
Skin Color 411
Polygenic Disorders 411
19.4 Multiple Allelic Traits 412
ABO Blood Types 412
19.5 Incompletely Dominant Traits 412
Sickle-Cell Disease 413
19.6 Sex-Linked Traits 414
X-Linked Alleles 414
X-Linked Disorders 415
Sex-Influenced Traits 417
Chapter 20
DNA and Biotechnology 421
20.1 DNA and RNA Structure
and Function 422
DNA Structure and Replication 423
The Structure and Function
of RNA 425
20.2 Gene Expression 426
Structure and Function of Proteins 426
The DNA Code 426
Transcription 426
Translation 428
Let’s Review Gene Expression 430
The Control of Gene Expression 431
20.3 Biotechnology 432
The Cloning of a Gene 432
The Polymerase Chain Reaction 433
Biotechnology Products 434
The Human Genome Project 438
Gene Therapy 439
Chapter 21
Cancer 443
21.1 Cancer Cells 444
Characteristics of Cancer Cells 444
21.2 Origin of Cancer 446
Regulation of the Cell Cycle 446
Apoptosis 447
21.3 Causes and Prevention of Cancer 448
Carcinogens 448
Heredity 450
21.4 Diagnosis and Treatment 451
Diagnosis of Cancer 451
Treatment of Cancer 453
Human Evolution and Ecology 461
Chapter 22
Evolution 461
22.1 Evidence for Evolution 462
Fossils and the History of Life 462
Comparative Anatomical
Evidence 463
Comparative Biochemical
Evidence 464
Biogeographical Evidence 464
22.2 The Evolutionary Process 465
Existence of Variations 465
Struggle for Existence 465
Survival of the Fittest 465
Adaptation to the Environment 465
22.3 Organic Evolution 466
Origin of Life 466
Evolution and Classification
of Living Things 467
22.4 Modern Humans Evolve 469
Primates 469
Hominids 469
We Are One Species 472
Chapter 23
Ecosystems 475
23.1 The Nature of Ecosystems 476
Succession 476
Biotic Components of an
Ecosystem 478
Food Webs and Trophic Levels 481
23.2 Global Biogeochemical Cycles 482
The Water Cycle 483
The Phosphorus Cycle 484
The Nitrogen Cycle 485
The Carbon Cycle 487
23.3 Human-Impacted Ecosystems 488
The Country 488
The City 489
The Solution 490
Chapter 24
Population Concerns 495
24.1 Human Population Growth 496
Exponential Growth 496
The More-Developed Versus
Less-Developed Countries 498
24.2 The Human Population
and Pollution 500
Global Climate Change 500
Global Chemical Climate 502
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 504
Surface Waters, Aquifers,
and Oceans 505
Soil Erosion, Desertification,
and Deforestation 506
24.3 The Human Population
and Biodiversity 509
Extinction 509
Conservation Biology 510
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