Exploration of the sea for marine microorganisms, notably the bacteria, was initiated as early as the late 1800s as part of research expeditions by Fischer, a ship's physician, and others mainly interested in luminous bacteria. When I began my studies and fieldwork in the early sixties, marine microbiology was still an undeveloped area of science. Furthermore, women generally were not allowed to go to sea on oceanographic research vessels. Only a few exceptions occurred because having women on board, according to some of the deckhands, was essentially having an "albatross" as part of the crew. My work was done on the systematics of marine bacteria utilizing numerical taxonomy and later expanded to include nucleic acid sequencing and gene probing. The molecular genetic studies of marine bacteria that my students and associates carried out allowed better understanding of the structure, function, and systematics of marine bacteria. My research included development of the first computer program to do numerical taxonomy of marine bacteria, notably the Virionaceae and related bacteria found in nearshore waters and the open ocean. The Virionaceae include human pathogens as well as fish pathogens and species contributing to nutrient cycling in the ocean.

My research on Vibrio cholerae led to the formulation of the hypothesis that the source of the causative agent of cholera is the environment. I proposed in the early 1970s that Vibrio cholerae is a native, naturally occurring bacterium in estuaries and brackish water and that the epidemic strain, Vibrio Cholerae 01, belonged in the same species as non-01 Vibrio species. A key paper in the early 1970s with Ronald Citarella, a graduate student at the time, on nuclei acid hybridization of Vibrio cholerae 01 and non-01 strains, showed relationship at the species level, a controversial finding at the time but now accepted. The hypothesis that Vibrio cholerae is naturally occurring in the environment has also finally been accepted. Subsequent research showed association of Vibrio cholerae with zooplankton, accounting for its distribution worldwide and also, potentially, for explosive epidemics when blooms of plankton occur. This research carried out with former student Dr. A. Huq is ongoing, and the results continue to be exciting.

More recently, I have pioneered the development of the new field of marine biotechnology. A paper published in 1983 based on an invited address at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1981, defined the field of marine biotechnology. At the time, I realized that the tools of molecular biology had extraordinary potential for marine biology. The potential of marine biotechnology (see Science, October 1983) has since been proven, to the point where marine biotechnology is now recognized as an economic sector with significant expansion predicted. With the decline of world fisheries, it is clear that marine biotechnology, especially application of the tools of molecular biology to aquaculture, will be critical in protecting remaining fisheries resources and providing brood stock, as well as production of seafood to meet the needs of the burgeoning population of this planet.

Marine biotechnology has other enormously exciting applications. From the sea, new pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and enzymes from deep sea hydrothermal vent bacteria associated with animals at the vents are now being developed for practical use. The complex integration of microorganisms in the web of nature is recognized and will be more completely understood as global patterns of biodiversity are documented.

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