Papyrus Back to Map Page Egypt Documentation of the first written language dates back about 5,000 years to the Sumerians, who formed clay tablets on which they captured their drawings and symbols. Not more than 100 years after the development of written Sumerian, the Egyptians formulated their own writing-hieroglyphics. Even more significant, however, was their use of a writing surface very different from clay tablets. The Egyptians used the papyrus plant, a sedge, to create the first paper. Photograph of paper made in Egypt from Cyperus papyrus papyrus. Note the cross-hatching pattern. Cyperus papyrus growing in an aquatic environment. Sedge is a common name for members of the Cyperaceae, a family of monocots composed of 115 genera and 3,600 species found in tropical and warm regions. Sedges are grasslike plants that differ from true grasses by having solid, triangular stems. Most sedges are perennial and reproduce by rhizomes. The papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, can reach heights of 15 feet and grows best in quietly flowing water up to 3 feet deep. The stem itself can grow to a width of 6 centimeters. C. papyrus was long cultivated in the Nile delta region in Egypt, where it occurs naturally. To make papyrus paper, the pith of C. papyrus was sliced into strips, soaked in water, and laid side by side. Another set of strips was laid on top of the first layer at a 90-degree angle to it, forming the characteristic cross-hatched pattern of true papyrus paper. Weights or heavy objects were placed on top so the fluids pressed out of the cut-open pith could act as a glue along with the added water. When dry, the sheets of the newly formed paper were made into rolls about 20 to 30 feet long and rubbed with ivory or shells to smooth the edges and create a finish. In addition to using the pith to make paper, the boiled rhizome and stems were edible; the woody, aromatic rhizomes were dried and used for fuel; and the stems were woven into sandals and mats, wreaths for the head, and rope. Although it is believed that the Greeks followed the Egyptians by making papyrus paper about 2,500 years ago (and the Romans followed shortly thereafter), the earliest extant Greek papyrus is the Persae of the poet Timotheus, who lived during the fifth and early fourth century B.C. The Greeks and Romans used papyrus paper until about the fourth century A.D., when parchment, made from the skins of sheep, calves, and goats, began to be used almost exclusively. Vellum, made from the skins of calves and other immature animals, was more expensive and often reserved for official documents. Parchment was used for about 2,200 years until it was replaced by more traditional paper prepared from the pulp of plants. The change from parchment was accelerated by the development and dissemination of printing. A new printing surface was needed because papyrus was too fragile for the new process and vellum was too expensive. Paper, on the other hand, is relatively strong and inexpensive.                                Modern papermaking process Modern-day paper is made of cellulose plant fibers compressed from wood pulp. (The word "fibers" is generally used in papermaking to mean not only fiber cells, but also tracheids and vessels.) Although the basic protocol has not changed since the Chinese first processed paper by hand about 100 A.D., machines have made the papermaking process easier, faster, and less expensive. The two main phases involved in papermaking are breaking up raw plant material in water to form a suspension of individual fibers and then formatting sheets by spreading this suspension on a porous surface to allow the excess water to drain. Of course, progress has added stages that further refine the final paper product-for example, washing the wood chips to decrease contaminants, screening the pulp for uniformity of fibers, and bleaching the pulp for ultra-white paper. Finer paper has cotton or linen mixed into the suspension. Pectin and lignin, components of the cell wall, cause paper containing them to yellow and become brittle with age; a large amount of newsprint is prepared via this method. Chemical processes, on the other hand, use solvents to dissolve or digest pectin and lignin, and depending on the chemical used, may create a longer-lasting, more attractive product. Each year, about 1 billion trees are cut down to satisfy the demand for paper and paper products. Forty-four metric tons of paper are produced each year in the United States for newsprint, paper, and paper products. This high volume has encouraged paper manufacturers to investigate other potential papermaking plants. Currently being explored as a source of pulp are bamboo, rice straw (a by-product of rice cultivation), and hemp, Cannabis sativa. Meanwhile, the papyrus plant that started it all is often used as an ornamental, and papyrus paper is used to create works of art. References, Websites, and Further Reading Levetin, Estelle, and Karen McMahon. 1999. Plants and society, 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, pp. 304-8. Mabberley, D.J. 1997. The plant-book, 2d ed. New York: Cambridge University Press. Simpson, B.B., and Molly C. Ogorzaly. 2001. Economic botany: Plants in our world, 3d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Cyperaceae Family Page at the University of Hawaii http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/carr/cyper.htm Exploratorium Magazine On-line: How to Make Hand-made Paper http://www.exploratorium.edu/exploring/paper/handmade.html Papyrus Homepage at Duke University http://odyssey.lib.duke.edu/papyrus/ University of Pennsylvania Egypt Page http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Egypt.html Related Reading in Stern, Introductory Plant Biology, 8th Edition Chapter 2: The Nature of Life Carbohydrates, including glucose and cellulose, pp. 22-23 Chapter 3: Cells The Cell Wall, including lignin and pectin, pp. 33-36 Chapter 4: Tissues Sclerenchyma, including fibers, pp. 54-56 Chapter 5: Roots and Soils The Region of Cell Division, including pith, pp. 64-65 Chapter 6: Stems Origin and Development of Stems, including pith, p. 86 Monocotyledonous Stems, pp. 93-95 Specialized Stems, including rhizomes, pp. 95-97 Wood and Its Uses, p. 99 Chapter 8: Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds Perennials, p. 128 Differences Between Dicots and Monocots, including Table 8.1, pp. 129-30. Dispersal by Water, including sedges, pp. 140-42 Chapter 24: Flowering Plants and Civilization Monocots, The Grass Family (Poaceae), p. 454 Chapter 25: Ecology Hydrosere, including sedges, p. 472