M A P P I N G L I F E W O R L D W I D E FIGURE 9-1 Countries with High Child-Marriage Rates Percentage of women age 20 to 24 who were married or in union before age 18 More than 60 percent 41–60 percent 21–40 percent 20 percent or less Data not available or child marriage not widely practiced Niger Mali Dominican Republic Burkina Faso Guinea Eritrea Sierra Ethiopia Leone Nigeria Central African Republic Nicaragua Note: Data are the most recent available, ranging from 1987 to 2006. Source: UNICEF 2010. In 21 countries, 40 percent or more of the women under 18 are married. Sociobiologists apply Darwin’s principle of natural selection to the study of social behavior. They assume that particular forms of behavior become genetically linked to a species if they contribute to its fitness to survive (van den Berghe 1978). In its extreme form, sociobiology suggests that all behavior is the result of genetic or biological factors, and that social interactions play no role in shaping people’s conduct. Sociobiologists do not seek to describe individual behavior on the level of “Why is Fred more aggressive than Jim?” Rather, they focus on how human nature is affected by the genetic composition of a group of people who share certain characteristics (such as men or women, or members of isolated tribal bands). In general, sociobiologists have stressed the basic genetic heritage that all humans share and have shown little interest in speculating India Somalia Malawi Zambia Mozambique Afghanistan Uganda Nepal Bangladesh Chad about alleged differences between racial groups or nationalities. A few researchers have tried to trace specific behaviors, like criminal activity, to certain genetic markers, but those markers are not deterministic. Family cohesiveness, peer group behavior, and other social factors can override genetic influences on behavior (Guo et al. 2008; E. Wilson 1975, 1978). Certainly most social scientists would agree that there is a biological basis for social behavior. Like interactionists, however, conflict theorists and functionalists believe that people’s behavior rather than their genetic structure defines social reality. Conflict theorists fear that the sociobiological approach could be used as an argument against efforts to assist disadvantaged people, such as schoolchildren who are not competing successfully (Freese 2008; Machalek and Martin 2010; E. Wilson 2000). M O D U L E 9 Recap and Review Summary Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. This module examines the social practices common to all cultures. 1. A shared culture helps to define the group or society to which we belong. 2. Anthropologist George Murdock compiled a list of cultural universals, or common practices found in What Is Culture? 57
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