when we start to learn a new language, we are at the mercy of those who teach us. We rely on their authority, and the only way to test our fluency is through interactions with other speakers. Because language is socially constructed, it allows change. We create new words and modify existing ones— especially in our modern global culture where innovation is never-ending. Dictionaries are regularly modified in an effort to try to keep up. In 2015, the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary added over 1,700 new words including photobomb, emoji, meme, twerk, jegging, and sriracha. Some linguists, including amateurs, have seized on the socially constructed nature of language in hopes of creating cognitive culture Our mental and symbolic representations of reality. whole new languages from scratch, with varying motivations (Okrent 2009). Some, inspired by the scientific revolution, were appalled by the inefficiencies and irregularities of existing languages. They invented new languages in the 17th and 18th centuries (such as Francis Lodwick’s Common Writing or John Wilkins’s Philosophical Language) in hopes of providing us with a logical system of communication in which the relationships between concepts were rational and everything fit together into a coherent whole. They didn’t want words to be arbitrary sounds we attach to things, hoping instead to map the essence of things through language. Even though they succeeded in creating coherent systems, the languages they created were difficult to use and failed to attract widespread acceptance. Chapter 3 / Culture • 51 dioxide plays, yet we find it difficult to make the kinds of lifestyle changes that might be called for, such as driving smaller cars, using more public transportation, or reducing consumption. COGNITIVE CULTURE The second component of culture, cognitive culture, consists of our mental and symbolic representations of reality. It is the part of culture that includes values, beliefs, knowledge, and all other representations constructed to make sense of the world around us. However, its most basic component, and perhaps the most important human cultural creation and the one upon which all others depend, is language. Language The building block of all communication and cooperation, language is a system of shared symbols; it includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and nonverbal gestures and expressions. It provides the foundation of a common culture because it facilitates dayto day exchanges with others, making collective action possible. According to the Ethnologue, a database of all known languages around the world, there are 7,106 living languages today. Of these, 1,519 (21 percent) are classified as “in trouble” and 915 (13 percent) are “dying.” There are 341 languages with fewer than 10 speakers, and 373 languages have become extinct since 1950 (Lewis, Simons, and Fennig 2015). Language is fundamentally social in nature. There are no inherent meanings in the sounds we make when talking or in the written alphabet we use. Instead, words get their meaning from us. We come together to agree that certain sounds or shapes mean certain things, and then we act based on those shared meanings. What matters most is our shared perception rather than the actual sound or image we use. We could, for example, teach a dog the wrong meanings of commands (fetch means stay, roll over means shake, and so on). The dog would never know the difference, but we would laugh because its responses would clash with our expectations. In fact, Personal Sociology Inventing New Words I was reminded of our ability to create new words while on a family hiking trip in Oregon. Eleanor, who was four at the time, was riding on my shoulders along the trail while her sister, Emily, and my wife, Lori, were falling behind. Eleanor turned and yelled as loud as she could, “Stop chickenjagging!” We knew immediately what she meant and have used this word ever since. Anyone can create words, but they become meaningful only when they are shared with others. For Eleanor’s new word to become part of the common language, the chickenjagging network must extend beyond our immediate family into the wider world. Have you ever done something similar with friends or family? © Little Blue Wolf Productions/Corbis RF language A system of shared symbols; it includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and nonverbal gestures and expressions.
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