Explorations an Introduction to Astronomy          Thomas T. Arny
		About the Book

Preface  xxi
INTRODUCTION

• The Cosmic Landscape   1
• The Earth, Our Home  2
• The Moon  3
• The Planets  3
• The Sun  5
• The Solar System  5
• A Sense of Scale  5
• The Astronomical Unit  6
• The Milky Way Galaxy  6
• The Light-Year  8
• Galaxy Clusters and the Universe  9
• Gravity  10
• Atoms and Other Forces  10
• The Scientific Method  11

• 1.1 Prehistoric Astronomy  22
• The Celestial Sphere  23
• Constellations  24
• Motions of the Sun and Stars  25
• Daily or Diurnal Motion  25
• Annual Motion  26
• The Ecliptic  27
• Solstices and Equinoxes  29
• The Planets and the Zodiac  30
• The Moon  32
• Eclipses  34
• 1.2 Early Ideas of the Heavens: Classical Astronomy  35
• The Shape of the Earth  35
• The Size of the Earth  36
• Distance and Size of Sun and Moon  37
• Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Diameter of Astronomical Objects  39
• The Motion of the Planets  40
• Ptolemy  41
• Islamic Contributions  42
• Asian Contributions  42
• 1.3 Astronomy in the Renaissance  42
• Copernicus  42
• Tycho and Kepler  44
• Galileo  47
• 1.4 Isaac Newton and the Birth of Astrophysics  49
• 1.5 The Growth of Astrophysics  49
• New Discoveries  50
• New Technologies  50
• The Nature of Matter and Heat  50
• The Kelvin Temperature Scale  50
• Projects  54

• Learning the Constellations  57
• Star Lore  58
• Amateur Astronomy  60
• Small Telescopes  61
• Star Charts  63
• Celestial Coordinates  63
• Planetary Configurations  64
• Your Eyes at Night  64
  

• 2.1 Solving the Problem of Astronomical Motion  78
• 2.2 Inertia  78
• 2.3 Orbital Motion and Gravity  80
• 2.4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion  81
• Acceleration  81
• Mass  82
• 2.5 The Law of Gravity  83
• 2.6 Newton’s Third Law  83
• 2.7 Measuring a Body’s Mass Using Orbital Motion  84
• 2.8 Surface Gravity  86
• 2.9 Escape Velocity  88

• 3.1 Properties of Light  94
• The Nature of Light—Waves or Particles?  94
• Light and Color  96
• Characterizing Electromagnetic Waves by Their Frequency  96
• White Light  97
• 3.2The Electromagnetic Spectrum: Beyond Visible Light  97
• Infrared Radiation  98
• Ultraviolet Light  99
• Radio Waves  99
• Other Wavelength Regions  99
• Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Radiation  100
• Wien’s Law: a Wavelength-Temperature Relation  100
• Extending Our Reach: Taking the Temperature of the Sun  101
• Blackbodies and Wien’s Law  102
• 3.3 Atoms  103
• Structure of Atoms  103
• The Chemical Elements  103
• 3.4 The Origin of Light  104
• 3.5 Formation of a Spectrum  106
• How a Spectrum Is Formed  106
• Identifying Atoms by their Light  108
• Types of Spectra  109
• Depicting Spectra  110
• Analyzing the Spectrum  110
• Astronomical Spectra  111
• 3.6 The Doppler Shift  112
• 3.7Absorption in the Atmosphere  112

• The Earth   123
• 4.1 The Earth as a Planet  124
• Shape and Size of the Earth  124
• Composition of the Earth  126
• Density of the Earth  126
• Extending Our Reach: Measuring The Earth’s Mass  127
• 4.2 The Earth’s Interior  127
• Probing the Interior with Earthquake Waves  128
• Heating of the Earth’s Core  130
• 4.3 The Age of the Earth  132
• 4.4 Motions in the Earth’s Interior  133
• Convection in the Earth’s Interior  133
• Plate Tectonics  133
• Extending Our Reach: Measuring Motion of Plates Across Time  136
• 4.5 The Earth’s Atmosphere  137
• Composition of the Atmosphere  137
• Origin of the Atmosphere  137
• The Ozone Layer  139
• The Greenhouse Effect  140
• Structure of the Atmosphere  140
• 4.6 The Earth’s Magnetic Field  141
• Origin of Earth’s Magnetic Field  142
• Magnetic Effects in the Upper Atmosphere  142
• 4.7 Motions of the Earth  144
• The Seasons  144
• Air and Ocean Circulation: The Coriolis Effect  146
• Precession  148
• Projects  151

• Telescopes 153
• 5.1 Telescopes  154
• Collecting Power  154
• Focusing the Light  154
• Extending Our Reach: Refraction  156
• Resolving Power  161
• 5.2 Interferometers  162
• 5.3 Observatories  163
• 5.4 Detecting the Light  163
• 5.5 Observing at Nonvisible Wavelengths  164
• Extending Our Reach: Exploring New Wavelengths:Gamma Rays  166
• Extending Our Reach: Observing the Crab Nebula at Many Wavelengths  167
• 5.6 Observatories in Space  168
• Atmospheric Blurring  169
• Space Observatories versus Ground-Based Observatories  171
• 5.7 Going Observing  173
• 5.8 Computers  173
• 5.9 Astronomers  174
• Project  176

• Length of the Daylight Hours  177
• The Day  177
• Time Zones  180
• Universal Time  180
• Daylight Saving Time  180
• The Month  181
• The Calendar  181
• Leap Year  182
• Religious Calendars  182
• Other Calenders  183
• Names of the Months and Days  183
• The Abbreviations a.m., p.m., b.c., and a.d.  183

• The Moon 185
• 6.1 Description of the Moon  186
• General Features  186
• Surface Features  186
• Origin of Lunar Surface Features  188
• 6.2 Structure of the Moon  190
• Crust and Interior  191
• The Absence of a Lunar Atmosphere  192
• 6.3 Orbit and Motions of the Moon  192
• The Moon’s Rotation  193
• Oddities of the Moon’s Orbit  194
• 6.4 Origin and History of the Moon  194
• 6.5 Eclipses  196
• Rarity of Eclipses  198
• Appearance of Eclipses  199
• 6.6 Tides  201
• Cause of Tides  201
• Solar Tides  203
• Tidal Braking  204
• 6.7 Moon Lore  205
• Projects  208

• Survey of the Solar System   217
• 7.1 Components of the Solar System  219
• The Sun  219
• The Planets  219
• Two Types of Planets  220
• Satellites  221
• Asteroids and Comets  222
• Composition Differences between the Inner and Outer Planets  223
• Density as a Measure of a Planet’s Composition  223
• Extending Our Reach: Bode’s Law: The Search for Order  224
• Age of the Solar System  225
• 7.2 Origin of the Solar System  226
• Interstellar Clouds  227
• Formation of the Solar Nebula  228
• Condensation in the Solar Nebula  228
• Accretion and Planetesimals  229
• Formation of the Planets  230
• Formation of Moons  231
• Final Stages of Planet Formation  231
• Formation of Atmospheres  233
• Cleaning up the Solar System  233
• Remodeling: Other Planetary Systems  234

• The Terrestrial Planets   239
• 8.1 Portraits of the Terrestrial Planets  240
• 8.2 Mercury  242
• Mercury’s Temperature and Atmosphere  243
• Mercury’s Interior  244
• Mercury’s Rotation  245
• 8.3 Venus  247
• The Venusian Atmosphere  247
• The Greenhouse Effect  248
• The Surface of Venus  249
• Interior of Venus  252
• Rotation of Venus  253
• 8.4 Mars  253
• The Martian Atmosphere  257
• The Martian Interior  260
• The Martian Moons  261
• Life on Mars?  262
• 8.5 Why Are the Terrestrial Planets so Different?  263
• Role of Mass and Radius  263
• Role of Internal Activity  263
• Role of Sunlight  264
• Role of Water Content  264
• Role of Biological Processes  264
• 8.6 Update: Exploring Mars  265

• The Outer Planets   271
• 9.1 Jupiter  272
• Appearance and Physical Properties  272
• Jupiter’s Interior  273
• Jupiter’s Atmosphere  274
• Jupiter’s Ring  276
• Jupiter’s Moons  277
• 9.2 Saturn  280
• Saturn’s Appearance and Physical Properties  280
• Saturn’s Rings  281
• Origin of Planetary Rings  283
• The Roche Limit  283
• Saturn’s Moons  284
• 9.3 Uranus  285
• Uranus’s Atmosphere  286
• Uranus’s Interior  286
• Uranus’s Rings and Moons  287
• Uranus’s Odd Tilt  288
• 9.4 Neptune  288
• Neptune’s Structure  289
• Neptune’s Atmosphere  289
• Neptune’s Rings and Moons  291
• 9.5 Pluto  292

• Meteors, Asteroids, and Comets   297
• 10.1 Meteors and Meteorites  298
• Heating of Meteors  298
• Meteorites  299
• 10.2 Asteroids  300
• Size and Shape  300
• Composition  302
• Origin of Asteroids  302
• Unusual Asteroids  304
• 10.3 Comets  305
• Structure of Comets  305
• Composition of Comets  307
• Origin of Comets  307
• Formation of the Comet’s Tail  309
• Light from the Comet’s Tail  310
• Short-Period Comets  310
• Fate of Short-Period Comets  310
• Meteor Showers  311
• 10.4 Giant Impacts  312
• Giant Meteor Craters   312
• Mass Extinction and Asteroid/Comet Impacts  314
• Projects  317

• Chapter 11
   
  The Sun, Our Star   325
• 11.1 Size and Structure  326
• Measuring the Sun’s Properties  327
• The Solar Interior  328
• Energy Transport  329
• The Solar Atmosphere  330
• 11.2 How the Sun Works  331
• Internal Balance (Hydrostatic Equilibrium)  331
• Pressure in the Sun  332
• Powering the Sun  333
• Nuclear Fusion  333
• The Structure of Hydrogen and Helium  334
• The Proton-Proton Chain  334
• 11.3 Probing the Sun’s Core  335
• Solar Neutrinos  335
• Solar Seismology  337
• 11.4 Solar Magnetic Activity  338
• Sunspots  338
• Solar Magnetic Fields  339
• Prominences and Flares  339
• Heating of the Chromosphere and Corona  340
• The Solar Wind  341
• Extending Our Reach: Detecting Magnetic Fields: the Zeeman Effect  342
• 11.5 The Solar Cycle  343
• Cause of the Solar Cycle  343
• Changes in the Solar Cycle  345
• Links between the Solar Cycle and Terrestrial Climate  345
• Projects  349

• Measuring the Properties of Stars   351
• 12.1 Measuring a Star’s Distance  352
• Measuring Distance by Triangulation and Parallax  352
• Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Distance to Sirius  354
• Measuring Distance by the Standard Candle Method  355
• 12.2 Measuring the Properties of Stars from Their Light  355
• Temperature  356
• Luminosity  357
• The Inverse-Square Law and Measuring a Star’s Luminosity 357
• Radius  358
• The Stefan-Boltzmann Law  358
• Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Radius of the Star Sirius  360
• The Magnitude System  361
• 12.3 Spectra of Stars  362
• Measuring a Star’s Composition  363
• How Temperature Affects a Star’s Spectrum  363
• Classification of Stellar Spectra  364
• Definition of the Spectral Classes  365
• Measuring a Star’s Motion  366
• 12.4 Binary Stars  368
• Visual and Spectroscopic Binaries  369
• Measuring Stellar Masses with Binary Stars  369
• Eclipsing Binary Stars  371
• 12.5 Summary of Stellar Properties  371
• 12.6 The H-R Diagram  372
• Constructing the H-R Diagram  373
• Analyzing the H-R Diagram  374
• Giants and Dwarfs  375
• The Mass-Luminosity Relation  375
• Luminosity Classes  376
• Summary of the H-R Diagram  377
• 12.7 Variable Stars  377
• 12.8 Finding a Star’s Distance by the Method of Standard Candles  379
• Projects  383

• Stellar Evolution   385
• 13.1 The Evolution of a Star  386
• The Sun’s Life Story  387
• The Life Story of a High-Mass Star  388
• The Importance of Gravity  389
• 13.2 Star Formation  390
• Interstellar Gas Clouds  390
• Protostars  391
• Bipolar Flows from Young Stars  392
• Stellar Mass Limits  393
• 13.3 Main-Sequence Stars  394
• Why a Star’s Mass Determines Its Core Temperature  394
• Structure of High-Mass and Low-Mass Stars  394
• Main-Sequence Lifetime of a Star  395
• 13.4 Giant Stars  396
• Leaving the Main Sequence  396
• Nuclear Fuels Heavier than Hydrogen  396
• Degeneracy in Low-Mass Stars  397
• 13.5 Yellow Giants and Pulsating Stars  398
• Why Do Stars Pulsate?  398
• The Period-Luminosity Relation  400
• 13.6 Death of Stars Like the Sun  400
• Ejection of a Low-Mass Star’s Outer Layers  400
• Planetary Nebulas  401
• 13.7 Old Age of Massive Stars  402
• Formation of Heavy Elements: Nucleosynthesis  402
• Core Collapse of Massive Stars  403
• Supernova Explosions  404
• Supernova Remnants  404
• 13.8 History of Stellar Evolution Theories  406
• 13.9 Testing Stellar Evolution Theory  407
• Extending Our Reach: Measuring The Age of a Star Cluster  408

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