PREFACE xvii
A GUIDE TO USING THIS TEXT xxi
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 2
Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS 30
Chapter 3 STOICHIOMETRY 58
Chapter 4 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 94
Chapter 5 GASES 128
Chapter 6 ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 162
Chapter 7 THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS 194
Chapter 8 THE PERIODIC TABLE 232
Chapter 9 CHEMICAL BONDING I: THE COVALENT BOND 268
Chapter 10 CHEMICAL BONDING II: MOLECULAR GEOMETRY AND
HYBRIDIZATION OF ATOMIC ORBITALS 296
Chapter 11 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS 328
Chapter 12 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 366
Chapter 13 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 396
Chapter 14 CHEMICAL KINETICS 428
Chapter 15 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 470
Chapter 16 ACIDS AND BASES 504
Chapter 17 ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA AND SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA 542
Chapter 18 THE CHEMISTRY OF COORDINATION COMPOUNDS 578
Chapter 19 THERMODYNAMICS 600
Chapter 20 REDOX REACTIONS AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY 628
Chapter 21 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 670
Chapter 22 ORGANIC POLYMERS-SYNTHETIC AND NATURAL 702
Appendix 1 UNITS FOR THE GAS CONSTANT 723
Appendix 2 SELECTED THERMODYNAMIC DATA AT 1 ATM AND 25°C 725
Appendix 3 MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS 731
Appendix 4 THE ELEMENTS AND THE DERIVATION OF THEIR NAMES
AND SYMBOLS 733
GLOSSARY 739
ANSWERS TO EVEN-NUMBERED PROBLEMS 751
PHOTOGRAPH CREDITS 763
INDEX 765
Contents
PREFACE xvii
A GUIDE TO USING THIS TEXT xxi
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 2 
1.1 The Study of Chemistry 4
How to Study Chemistry 4
1.2 The Scientific Method 4
1.3 Classification of Matter 6
Substances and Mixtures 6 , Elements and Compounds 7
1.4Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter 9
1.5 Measurement 10
SI Units 11 o Mass and Weight 11 o Volume 12 o Density 12 o Temperature 13
1.6 Handling Numbers 14
Scientific Notation 14
Addition and Subtraction 15 o Multiplication and Division 15 o Significant Figures 16 o Guidelines for
Using Significant Figures 17 o Accuracy and Precision 19
1.7 The Factor-Label Method of Solving Problems 20
Summary 23
Key Words 23
Questions and Problems 24
Special Problem 28
Answers to Practice Exercises 29
Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS 30 
2.1 The Atomic Theory 32
2.2 The Structure of the Atom 33
The Electron 33 o Radioactivity 35 o The Proton and the Nucleus 35
The Neutron 37
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes 38
2.4 The Periodic Table 39
2.5 Molecules and Ions 41
Molecules 41 o Ions 41
2.6 Chemical Formulas 43
Molecular Formulas 43 o Empirical Formulas 43
2.7 Naming Compounds 45
Ionic Compounds 45 o Molecular Compounds 48 o Acids and Bases 49
Naming Acids 49 o Naming Bases 52
Summary 52
Key Words 53
Questions and Problems 53
Special Problem 56
Answers to Practice Exercises 56
Chapter 3 STOICHIOMETRY 58 
3.1 Atomic Mass 60
Average Atomic Mass 60
3.2 Molar Mass of an Element and Avogadro's Number 61
3.3 Molecular Mass 64
3.4 The Mass Spectrometer 66
3.5 Percent Composition of Compounds 68
3.6 Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas 70
Determination of Molecular Formulas 72
3.7 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 72
Writing Chemical Equations 73 o Balancing Chemical Equations 74
3.8 Amounts of Reactants and Products 77
3.9 Limiting Reagents and Yields of Reactions 81
Yields of Reactions 83
Summary 85
Key Words 86
Questions and Problems 86
Special Problem 92
Answers to Practice Exercises 92
Chapter 4 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 
4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions 96
Electrolytes versus Nonelectrolytes 96
4.2 Precipitation Reactions 98
Solubility 99 o Molecular Equations and Ionic Equations 100
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions 101
General Properties of Acids and Bases 101 o Acids 102 o Bases 102
Brønsted Acids
and Bases 102 o Acid-Base Neutralization 104
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 105
Oxidation Number 107 o Activity Series 110
4.5 Concentration and Dilution of Solutions 112
Concentration of Solutions 112 o Dilution of Solutions 113
4.6 Solution Stoichiometry 115
Gravimetric Analysis 115 o Titrations 117
Summary 119
Key Words 120
Questions and Problems 120
Special Problem 126
Answers to Practice Exercises 126
Chapter 5 GASES 128 
5.1 Substances That Exist as Gases 130
5.2 Pressure of a Gas 131
SI Units of Pressure 131 o Atmospheric Pressure 132
5.3 The Gas Laws 133
The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle's Law 134
The Temperature-Volume Relationship: Charles' and Gay-Lussac's Law 135
The Volume-Amount Relationship: Avogadro's Law 138
5.4 The Ideal Gas Equation 139
Density and Molar Mass of a Gaseous Substance 142
5.5 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures 143
5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 148
Distribution of Molecular Speeds 149
5.7 Deviation from Ideal Behavior 151
Summary 154
Key Words 155
Questions and Problems 155
Special Problems 161
Answers to Practice Exercises 161
Chapter 6 ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 162 
6.1 Energy 164
6.2 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions 165
6.3 Enthalpy 166
Thermochemical Equations 167
6.4 Calorimetry 168
Specific Heat and Heat Capacity 168 o Constant-Volume Calorimetry 169
Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 172
6.5 Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction 173
The Direct Method 175 o The Indirect Method 176
6.6 Introduction to Thermodynamics 177
The First Law of Thermodynamics 178 o Work and Heat 180
Enthalpy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 183
Summary 185
Key Words 185
Questions and Problems 186
Special Problem 192
Answers to Practice Exercises 193
Chapter 7 THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS 194 
7.1 From Classical Physics to Quantum Theory 196
Electromagnetic Radiation 197 o Planck's Quantum Theory 198
7.2 The Photoelectric Effect 199
7.3 Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 201
Emission Spectra 201 o Emission Spectrum of the Hydrogen Atom 202
7.4 The Dual Nature of the Electron 206
7.5 Quantum Mechanics 208
7.6 Quantum Mechanical Treatment of the Hydrogen Atom 209
7.7 Quantum Numbers 210
The Principle Quantum Number (n) 210
The Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) 210
The Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) 210
The Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms) 211
7.8 Atomic Orbitals 211
s Orbitals 211 o p Orbitals 212 o d Orbitals and
Higher-Energy Orbitals 213 The Energies of Orbitals 214
7.9 Electron Configuration 215
The Pauli Exclusion Principle 216 o Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 217
The Shielding Effect in Many-Electron Atoms 218 o Hund's Rule 218
General Rules for Assigning Electrons to Atomic Orbitals 220
7.10 The Building-Up Principle 221
Summary 224
Key Words 225
Questions and Problems 226
Special Problem 231
Answers to Practice Exercises 231
Chapter 8 THE PERIODIC TABLE 232 
8.1 Development of the Periodic Table 234
8.2 Periodic Classification of the Elements 235
Electron Configurations of Cations and Anions 238
Ions Derived from Representative
Elements 238 o Cations Derived from Transition Metals 238
8.3 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties 239
Effective Nuclear Charge 239 o Atomic Radius 240 o Ionic Radius 242
8.4 Ionization Energy 244
8.5 Electron Affinity 247
8.6 Chemical Properties within Individual Groups 250
General Trends in Chemical Properties 250
Hydrogen (1s1) 251 o Group 1A Elements (ns1, n³2) 251
Group 2A Elements (ns2, n³2) 252 o Group 3A Elements (ns2np1, n³2) 253
Group 4A Elements (ns2np2, n³2) 254 o Group 5A Elements (ns2np3, n³2) 255
Group 6A Elements (ns2np4, n³2) 256 o Group 7A Elements (ns2np5, n³2) 257
Group 8A Elements (ns2np6, n³2) 258 Properties of Oxides across a Period 259
Summary 261
Key Words 261
Questions and Problems 262
Special Problem 267
Answers to Practice Exercises 267
Chapter 9 CHEMICAL BONDING I: THE COVALENT BOND 268 
9.1 Lewis Dot Symbols 270
9.2 The Covalent Bond 270
9.3 Electronegativity 273
Electronegativity and Oxidation Number 275
9.4 Writing Lewis Structures 276
9.5 Formal Charge and Lewis Structure 278
9.6 The Concept of Resonance 280
9.7 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 282
The Incomplete Octet 283 o Odd-Electron Molecules 283 o The Expanded Octet 284
9.8 Strength of the Covalent Bond 285
Use of Bond Energies in Thermochemistry 285
Summary 288
Key Words 289
Questions and Problems 289
Special Problems 294
Answers to Practice Exercises 294
Chapter 10 CHEMICAL BONDING II: MOLECULAR GEOMETRY AND 
HYBRIDIZATION OF ATOMIC ORBITALS 296
10.1 Molecular Geometry 298
Molecules in Which the Central Atom Has No Lone Pairs 298
AB2: Beryllium Chloride (BeCl2) 300 o AB3: Boron Trifluoride (BF3) 300 o AB4: Methane (CH4) 300 o
AB5: Phosphorus Pentachloride (PCl5) 301 o AB6: Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) 301
Molecules in Which the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pairs 302
AB2E: Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 302 o AB3E: Ammonia (NH3) 303 o AB2E2: Water (H2O) 304 o AB4E: Sulfur
Tetrafluoride (SF4) 304
Geometry of Molecules with More Than One Central Atom 304
Guidelines for Applying the VSEPR Model 306
10.2 Dipole Moments 307
10.3 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 310
sp Hybridization 311 o sp2 Hybridization 312 o sp3 Hybridization 313 o Procedure for
Hybridizing Atomic Orbitals 315 o Hybridization of s, p, and d Orbitals 318
10.4 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and Triple Bonds 320
Summary 323
Key Words 323
Questions and Problems 324
Special Problem 327
Answers to Practice Exercises 327
Chapter 11 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS 328 
11.1 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids and Solids 330
11.2 Intermolecular Forces 330
Dipole-Dipole Forces 331 o Ion-Dipole Forces 331 o Dispersion Forces 332 o The Hydrogen Bond 334
11.3 The Liquid State 336
Surface Tension 336 o Viscosity 337 o The Structure and Properties of Water 338
11.4 Crystal Structure 341
Packing Spheres 341
11.5 Bonding in Solids 345
Ionic Crystals 345 o Molecular Crystals 347 o Covalent Crystals 347 o Metallic Crystals 348
11.6 Phase Changes 348
Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium 348
Vapor Pressure 348 o Heat of Vaporization and Boiling Point 350 o Critical Temperature and Pressure 352
Liquid-Solid Equilibrium 353 o Solid-Vapor Equilibrium 355
11.7 Phase Diagrams 355
Water 355 o Carbon Dioxide 356
Summary 357
Key Words 358
Questions and Problems 358
Special Problems 364
Answers to Practice Exercises 364
Chapter 12 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 366 
12.1 Types of Solutions 368
12.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process 368
Factors That Affect Solubility 370
12.3 Concentration Units 371
Types of Concentration Units 371
Percent by Mass 371 o Molarity (M) 372 o Molality (m) 372
Comparison of Concentration Units 373
12.4 Effect of Temperature on Solubility 375
Solid Solubility and Temperature 375 o Gas Solubility and Temperature 376
12.5 Effect of Pressure on the Solubility of Gases 376
12.6 Colligative Properties 378
Vapor-Pressure Lowering 379 o Boiling-Point Elevation 381 o Freezing-Point Depression 382
Osmotic Pressure 383 o Using Colligative Properties to Determine Molar Mass 385
Colligative Properties of Electrolytes 387
Summary 389
Key Words 389
Questions and Problems 389
Special Problem 395
Answers to Practice Exercises 395
Chapter 13 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 396 
13.1 The Study of Organic Chemistry 398
13.2 Hydrocarbons 398
Alkanes 398
Alkane Nomenclature 400 o Reactions of Alkanes 402 o Cycloalkanes 403
Alkenes 404
Alkene Nomenclature 404 o Geometric Isomers 404 o Properties and Reactions of Alkenes 405
Alkynes 407
Alkyne Nomenclature 407 o Properties and Reactions of Alkynes 407
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 408
Properties and Reactions of Aromatic Compounds 409
13.3 Functional Groups 410
Alcohols 410 o Ethers 412 o Aldehydes and Ketones 412 o Carboxylic Acids 413 o
Esters 414 o Amines 415 o Summary of Functional Groups 416
13.4 Chirality-The Handedness of Molecules 417
Summary 421
Key Words 421
Questions and Problems 421
Special Problems 426
Answers to Practice Exercises 426
Chapter 14 CHEMICAL KINETICS 428 
14.1 The Rate of a Reaction 430
14.2 The Rate Laws 433
Experimental Determination of Rate Laws 435
14.3 Relation between Reactant Concentrations and Time 437
First-Order Reactions 437 o Second-Order Reactions 444
14.4 Activation Energy and Temperature Dependence of Rate Constants 446
The Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics 446 o The Arrhenius Equation 448
14.5 Reaction Mechanisms and Rate Laws 452
14.6 Catalysis 455
Heterogeneous Catalysis 456
The Manufacture of Nitric Acid 457 o Catalytic Converters 457
Homogeneous Catalysis 458 o Enzyme Catalysis 459
Summary 460
Key Words 461
Questions and Problems 461
Special Problems 468
Answers to Practice Exercises 468
Chapter 15 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 470 
15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium 472
15.2 Ways of Expressing Equilibrium Constants 474
Homogeneous Equilibria 475 o Heterogeneous Equilibria 479 o The Form of K and the
Equilibrium Equation 480 o Summary of the Rules for Writing Equilibrium Constant
Expressions 481
15.3 What Does the Equilibrium Constant Tell Us? 482
Predicting the Direction of a Reaction 482 o Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 483
15.4 Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium 487
Le Chatelier's Principle 487 o Changes in Concentrations 487 o Changes in Pressure and
Volume 489 o Changes in Temperature 491 o The Effect of a Catalyst 492 o Summary of
Factors That May Affect the Equilibrium Position 493
Summary 494
Key Words 494
Questions and Problems 495
Special Problems 503
Answers to Practice Exercises 503
Chapter 16 ACIDS AND BASES 504 
16.1 Brønsted Acids and Bases 506
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 506
16.2 The Acid-Base Properties of Water 507
The Ion Product of Water 507
16.3 pH-A Measure of Acidity 509
16.4 Strength of Acids and Bases 511
16.5 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants 514
Percent Ionization 519 o Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids 520
16.6 Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants 523
16.7 The Relationship between Conjugate Acid-Base Ionization Constants 525
16.8 Acid-Base Properties of Salts 526
Salts That Produce Neutral Solutions 526 o Salts That Produce Basic Solutions 526
Salts That Produce Acidic Solutions 527 o Metal Ion Hydrolysis 529
Salts in Which Both the Cation and the Anion Hydrolyze 530
16.9 Acidic, Basic, and Amphoteric Oxides 531
16.10 Lewis Acids and Bases 533
Summary 535
Key Words 535
Questions and Problems 535
Special Problems 541
Answers to Practice Exercises 541
Chapter 17 ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA AND SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA 542 
17.1 Homogeneous versus Heterogeneous Solution Equilibria 544
17.2 Buffer Solutions 544
Preparing a Buffer Solution with a Specific pH 547
17.3 A Closer Look at Acid-Base Titrations 549
Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations 549 o Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations 552 o
Strong Acid-Weak Base Titrations 552
17.4 Acid-Base Indicators 553
17.5 Solubility Equilibria 556
Solubility Product 556 o Molar Solubility and Solubility 557 o Predicting Precipitation
Reactions 560
17.6 The Common Ion Effect and Solubility 562
17.7 Complex Ion Equilibria and Solubility 564
17.8 Application of the Solubility Product Principle to Qualitative Analysis 567
Summary 570
Key Words 570
Questions and Problems 570
Special Problem 576
Answers to Practice Exercises 576
Chapter 18 THE CHEMISTRY OF COORDINATION COMPOUNDS 578 
18.1 Properties of the Transition Metals 580
Electron Configurations 582 o Oxidation States 582
18.2 Coordination Compounds 583
Oxidation Number of Metals in Coordination Compounds 584 o Naming Coordination
Compounds 585
18.3 Geometry of Coordination Compounds 587
Coordination Number=2 587 o Coordination Number=4 587 o Coordination
Number=6 588
18.4 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field Theory 589
Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes 589 o Color 590 o Magnetic Properties 592
Tetrahedral and Square Planar Complexes 594
Summary 595
Key Words 595
Questions and Problems 596
Special Problems 598
Answers to Practice Exercises 599
Chapter 19 THERMODYNAMICS 600 
19.1 Laws of Thermodynamics 602
19.2 Spontaneous Processes 602
19.3 Entropy 604
19.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 607
19.5 Gibbs Free Energy 609
Standard Free-Energy Changes 610 o Applications of Equation (19.6) 612
Temperature and Chemical Reactions 612 o Phase Transitions 614
19.6 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium 616
19.7 Thermodynamics in Living Systems 619
Summary 621
Key Words 621
Questions and Problems 621
Special Problems 627
Answers to Practice Exercises 627
Chapter 20 REDOX REACTIONS AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY 628 
20.1 Redox Reactions 630
Balancing Redox Equations 630
20.2 Galvanic Cells 633
20.3 Standard Electrode Potentials 635
20.4 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions 640
20.5 Effect of Concentration on Cell EMF: The Nernst Equation 644
20.6 Batteries 647
The Dry Cell Battery 647 o The Mercury Battery 647 o The Lead Storage Battery 648 o
Fuel Cells 649
20.7 Corrosion 651
20.8 Electrolysis 655
Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride 655 o Electrolysis of Water 656 o
Electrolysis of an Aqueous Sodium Chloride Solution 657 o Quantitative Aspects
of Electrolysis 658
20.9 Electrometallurgy 660
Production of Aluminum Metal 660 o Purification of Copper Metal 660
Summary 661
Key Words 662
Questions and Problems 662
Special Problems 669
Answers to Practice Exercises 669
Chapter 21 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 670 
21.1 The Nature of Nuclear Reactions 672
Balancing Nuclear Equations 672
21.2 Nuclear Stability 674
Nuclear Binding Energy 675
21.3 Natural Radioactivity 678
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 680 o Dating Based on Radioactive Decay 680
Radiocarbon Dating 680 o Dating Using Uranium-238 Isotopes 681
21.4 Nuclear Transmutation 682
The Transuranium Elements 683
21.5 Nuclear Fission 684
The Atomic Bomb 686 o Nuclear Reactors 686
Light Water Reactors 687 o Heavy Water Reactors 687 o Breeder Reactors 688
Hazards of Nuclear Energy 689
21.6 Nuclear Fusion 689
Fusion Reactors 690 o The Hydrogen Bomb 691
21.7 Uses of Isotopes 692
Determination of Molecular Structure 692 o Study of Photosynthesis 693 o Isotopes in
Medicine 693
21.8 Biological Effects of Radiation 695
Summary 696
Key Words 697
Questions and Problems 697
Special Problems 701
Answers to Practice Exercises 701
Chapter 22 ORGANIC POLYMERS-SYNTHETIC AND NATURAL 702 
22.1 Properties of Polymers 704
22.2 Synthetic Organic Polymers 704
Addition Reactions 704 o Condensation Reactions 709
22.3 Proteins 711
22.4 Nucleic Acids 716
Summary 719
Key Words 719
Questions and Problems 719
Special Problem 721
Appendix 1 UNITS FOR THE GAS CONSTANT 723
Appendix 2 SELECTED THERMODYNAMIC DATA AT 1 ATM AND 25°C 725
Appendix 3 MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS 731
Appendix 4 THE ELEMENTS AND THE DERIVATION OF THEIR NAMES
AND SYMBOLS 733
GLOSSARY 739
ANSWERS TO EVEN-NUMBERED PROBLEMS 751
PHOTOGRAPH CREDITS 763
INDEX 765
