References
Additional Readings
Online Resources
Major Assignment
Activities
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CULTURE AND SMALL GROUPS
This module is more informative than prescriptive (there are few "shoulds"). The students are presented with three approaches to culture and small groups. Diverse cultures in small groups is the more traditional approach. However, it is useful to have students consider small groups embedded in different cultures as well as the development of culture in small groups.Though the topic is complex, it is treated only briefly here. Instructors and students can draw from many different resources to further pursue the relationship between culture and small groups. Some of those resources are listed at the end of this module under "Additional Readings" and "Online Resources." An outline of the information in the student section is below.
- Communication plays a crucial role in developing, maintaining, and changing culture.
- We represent and perform culture with others through language and nonverbal messages.
- The symbols we use, both verbal and nonverbal, arise from the culture into which we are born.
- Culture is about commonality (what we share as a group), and differences, (what makes our group different from other groups).
- Cultural norms and rules affect the way individuals interact.
- Our ability to connect with others around the world via the Internet makes the geographical borders traditionally associated with culture all but irrelevant.
- We represent and perform culture with others through language and nonverbal messages.
- Culture and small groups are intertwined in three ways.
- Small groups are embedded within different cultures.
- Western cultures, such as the dominant U.S. culture, are grounded in an individualistic orientation that values the interests of the individual more than the interests of the group.
- Eastern cultures, such as Indonesian and Chinese culture, are grounded in a collectivist orientation and prioritize the group instead of the individual.
- These two orientations (collectivism and individualism) have different perspectives on group work, and therefore have different group processes.
- Western cultures, such as the dominant U.S. culture, are grounded in an individualistic orientation that values the interests of the individual more than the interests of the group.
- Cultural diversity within small groups is both a source of creative energy and of unproductive conflict.
- Research has found that groups composed of members from diverse cultural backgrounds tend to perform better and produce higher-quality decisions than groups that are homogeneous.
- Different communication styles, beliefs, and values can cause conflict in small groups.
- Research has found that groups composed of members from diverse cultural backgrounds tend to perform better and produce higher-quality decisions than groups that are homogeneous.
- As group members work together, they develop a culture unique to the group. This culture can be described in terms of the following characteristics:
- Vocabulary: words that group members use that are unique to the group.
- Practices: unique group processes.
- Stories: the narratives group members tell about the group.
- Metaphors: the way group members relate unfamiliar things to things they are all familiar with in order to describe a new idea or experience.
- Rituals: behaviors that are performed regularly in order to provide structure for group work.
- Objects: nonverbal symbols that represent key aspects of the group. Logos or emblems are good examples of objects that reflect the culture of a group.
- Vocabulary: words that group members use that are unique to the group.
- Small groups are embedded within different cultures.
REFERENCES
Agar, M. (1994). Language shock: Understanding the culture of conversation. New York: William Morrow and Company.Hall, S. (Ed.) (1997). Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices. London: Sage.
Haslett, B., & Ruebush, J. (1999). What differences do individual and differences in groups make? The effects of individuals, culture, and group composition. In L. Frey, D. Gouran, & M. Poole (Eds.), The handbook of group communication & research (pp. 115-138). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Lull, J. (1995). Media, communication, culture: A global approach. New York: Columbia University Press.
Pacanowsky, M., & O'Donnell-Trujillo, N. (1982). Communication and organizational cultures. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 46, 115-130.
Shuter, R. (1998). Revisiting the centrality of culture. In J. Martin, T. Nakayama, & L. Flores (Eds.), Readings in cultural contexts (pp. 38-48). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
Ting-Toomey, S. (1999). Communicating across cultures. New York: Guilford.
ADDITIONAL READING (students)
Broome, B. (1998). Views from the other side: Perspectives on the Cyprus Conflict. In J. Martin, T. Nakayama, & L. Flores (Eds.), Readings in cultural contexts (pp. 422-433). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Dodd, C. (1998). Dynamics of intercultural communication, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.Gudykunst, W., & Kim, Y. (1997). Communicating with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gudykunst, W., Ting-Toomey, S., & Nishida, T. (Eds.). (1996). Communication in personal relationships across cultures. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hetherington, C. (1995). Celebrating diversity: Working with groups in the workplace. Duluth, MN: Whole Person Associates.
Lewis, R. (2000). When cultures collide. Naperville, IL: Nicholas Brealey.
Lustig, M., & Koester, J. (Eds.). (1999). Among US: Essays on identity, belonging, and intercultural competence. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Nwosu, P. (1998). Negotiating with the Swazis. In J. Martin, T. Nakayama, & L. Flores (Eds.), Readings in cultural contexts (pp. 414-422). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
Samovar, L., & Porter, R. (1999). Intercultural communication: A reader. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
ADDITIONAL READING (instructor)
Hartley, P. (1997). Group communication. London: Routledge.Keyton, J. (1999). Relational communication in groups. In L. Frey (Ed.), D. Gouran (Assoc. Ed.), & M. Poole (Assoc. Ed.), The handbook of group communication theory and research (pp. 192-222). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Miller, K., & Monge, P. (1986). Participation, satisfaction, and productivity: A meta-analytic review. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 727-753.
Monge, P., & Miller, K. (1988). Participative processes in organizations. In G. Goldhaber & G. Barnett (Eds.), Handbook of organizational communication (pp. 213-229). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Wech, B., Mossholder, K., Steel, R., & Bennett, N. (1998). Does work group cohesiveness affect individuals' performance and organizational commitment? A cross-level examination. Small Group Research, 29, 472-494.
Wheelan, S., Murphy, D., Tsumura, E., & Kline, S. (1998). Member perceptions of internal group dynamics and productivity. Small Group Research, 29, 371-393.
ONLINE RESOURCES (students)
C3-Center for Communication and Culturehttp://www.c3.hu/
Based in Budapest, Hungary, this site includes a number of web projects, including Truth Is a Moving Target, Reality Check, and Form. The site is media intensive, so a high-speed connection and sophisticated web browser are needed.
Cultural Competence
http://www.culturalcompetence2.com/
Includes an annotated list print and web-based cultural competence resources.
Diversity Central
http://www.diversitycentral.com/
Though it's clearly commercial, the site nonetheless includes articles, quizzes, tips, and suggestions related to diversity, with a special emphasis on the workplace.
Diversity, Inc
http://www.diversityinc.com/
A commercial site with a corporate focus, Diversity, Inc. will give you an idea of how diversity issues are being addressed in the workplace.
Exploring Ancient World Cultures
http://eawc.evansville.edu/index.htm
Sponsored by the University of Evansville, this site provides useful, yet scholarly, information about ancient cultures.
Intercultural Communication Institute
http://www.intercultural.org/
The Intercultural Communication Institute is a nonprofit organization that offers instruction and resources related to intercultural communication issues.
Y? The National Forum on People's Differences
http://www.yforum.com/
"This forum, the first and only of its kind, gives you a way to ask people from other ethnic or cultural backgrounds the questions you've always been too embarrassed or uncomfortable to ask them. If you have the courage to ask, Y? will evaluate your question, consider it for posting and try to get someone from that background to answer. If needed, Y? will get an expert to weigh in. You'll also have a chance to answer questions related to your own demographic background."
ADDITIONAL ONLINE RESOURCES (instructor)
Central Michigan U's Diversity Resources Projecthttp://www.lib.cmich.edu/departments/reference/diversity
Developed by librarians at CMU, the site offers an extensive bibliography grouped by topic as well as links to diversity-related websites.
Diversity Database, U of Maryland
http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Topic/Diversity/
Links to general diversity resources, issue specific resources, and diversity reference resources. Disability Spotlight includes diversity-related syllabi from universities across the U.S.
Diversity Web
http://www.diversityweb.org/
Sponsored by the ACLU and the U of Maryland, the site includes resources, discussion forums, and institutional profiles.
May Faces, Many Voices
http://www.pbs.org/manyfaces/index.html
Produced by PBS, this highly interactive site includes strategies for supporting diversity as well as diversity resources. "Over the next three years, Many Faces, Many Voices, public television's outreach campaign on diversity, will take to the air with an array of top quality public television programs and series, punctuated by provocative spots exploring issues of diversity. The programming will be a springboard to engage people in productive dialogue and encourage constructive action."
MAJOR ASSIGNMENT
Tom Socha argues that the family is the first group. It can be useful for students in a small group communication class to examine this group, which is typically characterized as the basis of U.S. culture. Students can examine this group in three ways: (1) family within a particular culture; (2) intercultural families; and (3) family as culture. The first two approaches work well as group projects; the third works better as an individual project with the results shared among the class. Have each group submit a project proposal before starting any in-depth research.For project (1), family in culture, each group chooses a different culture and researches the characteristics of families within that culture. For project (2), intercultural families, each group examines some aspect of families whose members have different cultural backgrounds. For project (3), students examine their own family culture. Groups may take a variety of approaches to these projects. They may examine changes in families over time or different definitions of "family." Groups should identify particular aspects of families (e.g., power, functions, interaction norms, relational norms, and responsibilities) on which they wish to focus. Data for their reports may come from previous research, or students may want to conduct interviews, surveys, etc. Written and oral reports must apply course concepts, include a minimum of two outside references for each group member, and explain how the research contributes to our understanding of small group communication.
Reference
Socha, T. (1999). Communication in family units: Studying the first "group." In L. Frey, D. Gouran, & M. Poole (Eds.), The handbook of group communication & research (pp. 475-492). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
ACTIVITIES
- Class culture. This is a useful activity to get students thinking about their own groups as cultures. Have students identify different cultural indicators and the values and beliefs behind those indicators. Students can also examine both aspects of the class culture that are unique to their particular class, and those aspects that they can observe across classes.
- Project group culture. This is an opportunity for each permanent group in the class to examine its cultural norms. Have students identify examples of each cultural indicator and then discuss which group values underlie those indicators. Group members should then discuss whether those values help or hinder the group as they try to attain their goals. Finally, have group members discuss changes they might want to make based on their discussion.
- Culture on the Internet. Have student join a listserv or Newsgroup (Usenet discussion group) as an observer. Students should note interaction norms, vocabulary, rituals, and other cultural indicators. Have students discuss their findings in class, including their conclusions about the groups' values and beliefs.
- Self analysis. Have students write down an example of one positive and one negative intercultural experience they had while working in small groups. Have students discuss their experiences in small groups, and then have the small groups share their discussion with the entire class.
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