References
Additional Readings
Online Resources
Major Assignment
Activities
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ETHICAL COMMUNICATION IN SMALL GROUPS
With the postmodern turn in communication and other disciplines came the notion of ethical relativism. Supporters of ethical relativism argue that all moral judgments are culturally based, so what is right or wrong depends on a society's norms. As Andre and Velasquez (1992) observe:
For the ethical relativist, there are no universal moral standards -- standards that can be universally applied to all peoples at all times. The only moral standards against which a society's practices can be judged are its own. If ethical relativism is correct, there can be no common framework for resolving moral disputes or for reaching agreement on ethical matters among members of different societies.
Individuals often appeal to ethical relativism when justifying their actions, although generally on a more micro scale. For example, some may argue that within the person's group of friends, a particular behavior is acceptable. However, Andre and Velasquez note: "Most ethicists reject the theory of ethical relativism." They argue that while we can identify differences in societal practices, there are common fundamental moral principles underlying those practices. Still, the authors recognize the need to examine cultural differences in morality in coming to an agreement on ethical behavior.
The information on the student side of this module for the most part begins with the general (what is ethical communication?) and ends with the specific (how does this apply to small groups?). The outline is below.
I. Ethics in small groups involves three levels:
1. Individual group member
"I didn't complete the research on time for my part of the project.
Should I think up an excuse? Or tell my group what happened: that I
went to Las Vegas for the weekend instead of doing my research?"
2. Group
Group A finds a published study that is identical to its project.
Group members are pressed for time to complete their report. Should
they just copy the study, making a few minor changes?
3. Group environment
An organizational task force on safety identifies several current
practices that put organization members at risk. Changing all those
practices will cost the organization millions of dollars. Should the
task force report all the findings to management? Report only those
that would be less costly?
II. What is Ethical Communication?
A. Ethics in small groups refers to the moral aspects of group interaction.
B. National Communication Association (NCA) definition: "ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and other."
III. Ethics in Communication
A. NCA Credo for Ethical Communication
1. Truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason are essential to the integrity of communication.
2. Endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society.
3. Strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and responding to their messages.
4. Access to communication resources and opportunities is necessary to fulfill human potential and contribute to the well being of families, communities, and society.
5. Promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respect the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators.
6. Condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intolerance, intimidation, coercion, hatred, and violence.
7. Commit to the courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.
8. Advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing significant choices while also respecting privacy and confidentiality.
9. Unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well being of individuals and the society in which we live.
10. Accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences for our own communication and expect the same of others.
B. Ethical communication themes: caring and responsibility.
IV. Applied Ethics
A. Propel's 13 guidelines. (FAQs and About)
1. Think and act like an owner.
2. Have fun.
3. Recognize accomplishment.
4. Keep a balance in your life.
5. Teach and learn from each other.
6. Communicate without fear of retribution.
7. Require quality beyond customer expectations.
8. Improve continuously.
9. Go the extra mile to take care of the customer.
10. Play to win-win.
11. Act with a sense of urgency.
12. Make and meet commitments.
13. Give back to the community.
1. Recognize a Moral Issue
2. Get the Facts
3. Evaluate the Alternative Actions from Various Moral Perspectives
4. Make a Decision
5. Act
6. Reflect on the Decision
Andre, C., & Velasquez, M. (1992). Ethical relativism. Issues in Ethics, 5(2). Available at:
http://www.scu.edu/SCU/Centers/Ethics/publications/iie/
National Communication Association (2000). Credo on Ethical Communication. Available at: http://www.natcom.org/policies/External/EthnicalComm.htm
O'Brien Hallstein, D. (1999). A postmodern caring: Feminist standpoint theories, revisioned caring, and communication ethics. Western Journal of Communication, 63, 32-56.
Santa Clara University's Markkula Center for Applied Ethics (2000). The Ethics Connection. Website available at: http://www.scu.edu/SCU/Centers/Ethics/
Scheinin, R. (2000, April 16). Value judgments. San José Mercury News Silicon Valley Magazine, 8-16.
ADDITIONAL READING (instructors)
Christians, C., & Traberm, M. (Eds.). (1997). Communication ethics and universal values. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Conaway, R., & Fernandez, T. (2000). Ethical preferences among business leaders: Implications for business schools. Business Communication Quarterly, 63, 23-31.
Conrad, C. (Ed.). (1993). The ethical nexus. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Dragga, S. (1999). Ethical intercultural technical communication: Looking through the lens of Confucian ethics. Technical Communication Quarterly, 8, 365-381.
Faber, B. (1999). Intuitive ethics: Understanding and critiquing the role of intuition in ethical decisions. Technical Communication Quarterly, 8, 189-202.
Jaksa, J., & Pritchard, M. (1994). Communication ethics: Methods of analysis, 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Jensen, J. (1997). Ethical issues in the communication process. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Johannesen, R. (1996). Ethics in human communication, 4e. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
Mackin, J. (1997). Community over chaos: An ecological perspective on communication ethics. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Makau, J., & Arnett, R. (Eds.). (1997). Communication ethics in an age of diversity. Urbana: U of Illinois Press.
O'Brien Hallstein, D. (1999). A Postmodern Caring: Feminist Standpoint Theories, Revisioned Caring, and Communication Ethics. Western Journal of Communication, 63, 32-56.
Seeger, M. (1997). Ethics and organizational communication. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Zorn, T., & Rosenfeld, L. (1989). Between a rock and a hard place: Ethical dilemmas in problem-solving group facilitation. Management Communication Quarterly, 3, 93-106.
Applied
Ethics in Professional Practice
Developed by the Professional Engineering Practice Liaison Program in
the College of Engineering at the University of Washington, this site
not only includes information about professional ethics, but also
allows you to participate in the case of the month.
The Canadian Centre for
Ethics & Corporate Policy
The links section of the site provides a useful index of ethics
resources on the WWW
Center for the
Study of Ethics in the Professions: Codes of Ethics Online
Project
Part of the Illinois Institute of Technology website, this site
provides a comprehensive compilation of codes of ethics used in a
variety of contexts.
Centre for Applied Ethics,
University of British Columbia
Lists print and WWW resources on ethics.
Complete
Guide to Ethics Management: An Ethics Toolkit for Managers
A pragmatic approach to ethics in the workplace, the information
included in the guide is applicable to small groups as well as large
organizations. An example code of ethics lists the following:
trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, caring, justice and
fairness, civic virtue and citizenship.
Corporate Watch
"Corporate Watch provides news, analysis, research tools and action
resources to respond to corporate activity around the globe. We also
talk with people who are directly affected by corporate abuses as
well as with others fighting for corporate accountability, human
rights, social and environmental justice." Ethics on a macro scale,
yet many of the principles that apply to small group contexts are
applicable in the larger corporate environment as well.
DePaul University's
Institute for Business and Professional Ethics
Sponsors the Online
Journal of Ethics, as well as ethics resources grouped by
topic and
resources for
instructors.
Ethics in Action
http://www.ethicsinaction.com/
This is an interesting site and demonstrates how organizations use
social responsible to their advantage. "Ethics in Action was created
in 1994 in Vancouver, B.C., through a partnership between VanCity
Savings Credit Union and The Workplace Ministry Society . . . .
Companies with socially responsible practices are experiencing
enhanced brand image and reputation, improved financial results,
increased loyalty from customers and employees, and reduced
regulatory oversight."
Markkula Center
for Applied Ethics
From the Center's Mission statement: "Established in 1986, the
mission of the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara
University is to heighten ethical awareness and improve ethical
decision-making on campus and in the community at large. . . . The
Center promotes ethical decision-making that is guided by moral
principles and values, such as respect for persons, justice, and
compassion. It does not tell people what to think; but rather, tells
people what to think about in making ethical decisions." Includes
resources on ethical decision making, as well as links to other
resources focusing on ethics.
ADDITIONAL ONLINE RESOURCES (instructors)
Business and
Financial Ethics Internet Resource Center
Developed by the Illinois Institute of Technology's Stuart School of
Business, this site is particularly useful for instructors. Included
case studies, articles, ethic codes, and links to other business
ethics resources.
Ethics
on the Internet
An extensive collection of links to ethics-related websites; however,
hasn't been updated in sometime. Linked to this site is Ethical
Counseling Online <
http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~jjuhasz/ethics.html> which includes
descriptions of everyday ethical dilemmas.
Ethics
on the World Wide Web
Developed by the faculty at School of Communications, California
State University, Fullerton, this website indexes books, listservs,
and courses related to ethical communication. Additional topics
include computers, legal, media, medical, military, movie and TV,
governmental, and science. Includes brief descriptions of most
resources.
Ethics Resource Center
Founded in 1977 as an outgrowth American Viewpoint (founded in 1922),
the Ethics Resource Center developed and published the U.S. Code of
Ethics for Government Service in 1980. The website includes
information on business ethics, character education programs, and
international programs, as well as links to other resources.
Legalethics.com:
The Intersection of Ethics and the Law
Sponsored by Internet Legal Services, the site is easily searchable
by category (such as ethics or technology) and topic (such as
articles and rules).
Online
Science Ethics Resources
Although it hasn't been updated in some time, this website hosted by
the Department of Chemistry at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University has a useful index of professional codes of ethics
as well as other online resources.
MAJOR ASSIGNMENT
Students in small group communication classes frequently engage in
activities and assignments that center on hypothetical situations and
case studies written by others. This is an opportunity for students
to develop and analyze their own case studies. Have students provide
a written report following the guidelines below. Then set aside class
time for discussion of each case, first in small groups, then the
entire class.
Self Case Study in Ethical Small Group Communication
1. Reflect on ethical situations you've faced in small group situations (e.g., committees, work groups, student project groups, project teams, task forces). Choose one to examine in detail. Below, provide background information on the situation, including participants (use aliases rather than individual's true names), type of group, the group's charge, and other information that will provide context for the ethical issue.
2. Describe the ethical dilemma in as much detail as possible. What were the positions? What was at stake? What were the consequences of the group's or individual's decision?
3. Analyze the case. How did you decide what kind of communication was ethical? What ethical principles did you apply? How satisfied were you with the outcome? (Santa Clara University's Markkula Center for Applied Ethics' Framework For Ethical Decision Making is useful here)
4. Discuss the implications of your analysis. What have you learned based on your analysis of your case? How will you apply what you've learned to future ethical issues in small group contexts?
1. Ask each permanent group in the class develop its own code of ethics. Discuss the similarities and differences in the different group's ethical codes.
2. Various websites provide case studies for students to examine, such as Business and Financial Ethics Internet Resource Center , Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, and DePaul University's Institute for Business and Professional Ethics.
3. The current events often provide examples of thorny ethical dilemmas, as with the Elian Gonzalez case: some argue it is simply a child-custody issue and others argue that it's a larger issue of democracy and free speech.
4. Develop brief situations that involve ethical dilemmas students might face in small group situations. Paste the situations on large index cards. On the back of the card, include "circumstances" that may influence students' decisions. Divide students into groups of about 5. Give one card to each group and ask participants to reach a decision on what action the character(s) should take. Then have them turn over the card and continue their discussions in light of the circumstances. Form a large circle for class discussion. Below is an example:
Situation: At lunch one day, a co-worker on another project team tells you about an idea for recycling paper at the company for which you both work. You take the idea to your team which then spends 2 weeks doing research and writing up a proposal to present at the next department meeting. Do you give the co-worker credit for the original idea?
Circumstances: If the company accepts your team's proposal, each team member will receive a $2000 bonus plus a percentage of any company savings. If you give your co-worker credit for the idea, you will have to split the bonus and the percentage of savings with your co-worker's team.
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