PRAGMATIC ISSUES IN SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION

This section addresses several issues associated with the practical functioning of small groups. Issues discusses are:

- Structuring teamwork in groups

- Group meetings (meeting planning, group records)

- Leading discussion (this is not for the designated group leader only!)

- Researching topics

- Planning, implementing, and evaluating a project

STRUCTURING TEAMWORK IN GROUPS

Although we hear a lot about the importance of teamwork, how we go about creating teamwork in small groups is typically unstated. Yet, developing true teamwork in small groups facilitates a spirit of cooperation among group members. Taking a cooperative approach to group work can prevent problems associated with group work, such as social loafing (letting others do the work) and lowest-common-denominator performance (the group performs not at levels set by the highest-achieving members, but rather, group members settle for levels set by the lowest-achieving members).

In their research on teamwork, Larson and LaFasto (1989) identified the eight characteristics of an effective team. These characteristics emphasize the importance of cooperation in productive and satisfying small groups. Larson and LaFasto studied 75 teams over three years. These were not groups set up only for research purposes, but were already-existing teams, such as the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, Mt. Everest Expedition/British Antarctic Expedition, and Centers for Disease Control Epidemiology Teams.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEAMS

1.A Clear, Elevating Goal

A clear goal is one that is stated as a performance objective. Group members then know what the group's objective is and when it has been attained. This is similar to the first and second steps in Standard Agenda (see below) in which groups must determine the charge and the problem they face. Phrasing the question in the second step of Standard Agenda guides all further discussion in the group concerning that problem. This is also the function of goal clarity in a group. A clear goal keeps group members on track and focusing on a common purpose.

An elevating goal is one that is challenging to the group as well as to individual group members. In addition, an elevating goal can be one which makes a difference outside the small group. Accomplishing the goal will have an impact on others.

What most often gets in the way of keeping group members focused on their goal?

Larson and LaFasto found the answer was personal success. When group members focused on themselves rather than on the group, the group had difficulty sticking to the task at hand, typically encountering frustration and personal or hidden agendas.

2.A Results-Driven Structure

Structure refers to the norms which develop in a group through group member interaction. Structure is not simply imposed on a group; rules or norms are negotiated among group members as they communicate with each other.

A results-driven structure means that group norms are designed with the group's goal in mind. Larson and LaFasto state: "For a structure to be functional and useful, it must be established in such a way that individual and combined efforts always lead toward the desired goal" (p. 42).

So as explicit and implicit norms develop in your group, group members need to identify those norms and critically assess them. Are these norms helping the group, or are they hindering the group from getting the job done?

There are four necessary features of team structure which help a team function effectively.

Clear roles and accountabilities. Although roles are flexible and may change over time, it is important that group members fulfill the roles needed for the group to accomplish the task. In addition, by making individual group members accountable for their tasks, groups can combat social loafing.

An effective communication system. Group members need access to information from credible sources. Group members also need to be able to raise issues relevant to the task which are not on the group's agenda.

Finally, the communication system must provide a way to document group discussion and decisions made, such as meeting minutes (see below).

Monitoring individual performance and providing feedback.

Here it is important for groups to determine which group members will complete what tasks. Group members need to determine fair criteria for evaluating completed tasks and group member performance.

Fact-based judgments. Using Standard Agenda will help you focus on evidence to support the conclusions you draw in group work. Group members need to clearly distinguish between evidence and unsubstantiated opinion in the decision-making process.

3.Competent Team Members

Larson and LaFasto found that competent team members shared three characteristics.

Essential skills and abilities. These include both technical skills related to the task and interpersonal skills related to working with others.

A strong desire to contribute. This is not simply putting forth one's own ideas, but contributing as a listener as well.

The capability of collaborating effectively. In collaborating, group members are concerned with maintaining good relationships among group members as well as accomplishing the task.

4.Unified Commitment

A unified commitment is a sense of team spirit, loyalty and dedication to the team. Group members need to be involved with the group's task and how it is completing those tasks. In addition, groups need to find a balance between differentiation (specialization and being unique individuals) and integration (collaborating and being part of the group). Too much differentiation results in group members going off on their own and for the most part acting independently with little commitment to the group.

Too much integration can lead to an unhealthy degree of conformity and groupthink.

5.Collaborative Climate

A collaborative climate is the essence of teamwork. Developing a collaborative climate requires a balance between group member involvement and individual autonomy. That is, there are times when the entire group is needed for problem solving and decision making. There are also times when individual group members must take responsibility for completing tasks.

6.Standards of Excellence

Standards of excellence are concerned with expectations for group member and group performance. Excellent does not mean unattainable or unreasonable. There are three characteristics of effective standards of excellence.

Standards of excellence should address individual commitment, motivation, and performance. Group members should openly discuss these standards and make them as clear and concrete as possible.

Standards of excellence are sustained in performance. That is, individual team members must make a commitment to live up to the standards they set.

Standards of excellence are not static. Group members should strive to improve their performance. As they meet standards of excellence, group members need to revisit those standards and revise them to encourage and reward improved performance.

7.External Support and Recognition

Groups don't exist in a vacuum. Group members need resources to complete their tasks and contributions from those outside the group to succeed. For teams to function effectively, they need information and resources from outside the group, as well as recognition for the work they are doing.

8.Principled Leadership

We often think of leadership as residing in a single group member. Yet, groups are often characterized by multiple group members performing leadership functions. Further, leadership requires followership. For leaders to function effectively, followers must fulfill their parts as well.

Team Leader Principles

1. Avoid compromising the team's objective with personal issues or hidden agendas.
2. Exhibit a personal commitment to the team's goal.
3. Do not dilute the team's efforts with too many priorities.
4. Be fair and impartial toward all team members.
5. Confront and resolve issues associated with inadequate team member performance.
6. Be open to new ideas and information from other team members.

Team Member Principles

1. Fulfill task and maintenance roles as needed, avoiding self-centered roles.
2. Demonstrate critical thinking skills.
3. Collaborate effectively with other team members.
4. Make the team goal a higher priority than any personal objective.
5. Demonstrate a dedication to completing team tasks.
6. Share information, ideas, and feedback with other group members.
7. Assist other team members when needed and appropriate.
8. Demonstrate high standards of excellence.
9. Support team decisions.
10. Directly confront important issues.
11. Demonstrate leadership in ways which contribute to the team's success.
12. Respond constructively to others' feedback.

Cooperation among group members can be a difficult goal to attain. Often, group members start out thinking and hoping that they will cooperate, and end up competing, pursuing personal goals, and experiencing divisiveness rather than collaboration.

The strategies discussed above for promoting teamwork provide practical ways for you to encourage group members to work together in achieving your group's goals. These strategies can help avoid problems associated with group work, such as group members not completing their fair share of the workload.

GROUP MEETINGS

Although small group members often complain about meetings, an effectively-planned and implemented meeting can greatly contribute to the group's ability to achieve its goals. While mundane, tasks such as meeting planning and keeping group records are essential to the group's effective functioning.

Meeting Planning

1.Define the meeting's purpose. Every meeting must have a purpose which all group members know in advance. This will guide the group's discussion and assist group members in preparing for the meeting.

2.Establish starting and stopping times the meeting. When group members know that meetings will start on time and finish at a specific time, they are more likely to be punctual and less likely to leave early.

3.Make all necessary physical arrangements. Have the room reserved and prepared before the meeting, including any materials needed for the meeting.

4.Notify group members of the meeting. Make sure all group members know in advance the meeting agenda, necessary preparation for the meeting, and the meeting time and place.

Group Records

1. Agenda. An agenda is essential for every group meeting to keep group discussion focused. Agendas should include an ordered list of all the items of business, topics, and other issues the group will discuss at the meeting. You should have an agenda for every meeting. If group members can't think of any items that need discussion, then don't meet!

2. Minutes. These provide a record of group discussions. Make sure someone is assigned to record the minutes of every meeting. Meeting minutes should be completed and distributed to group members as soon after the meeting as possible. Minutes help the group members recall what tasks they've completed, decisions they've made, and what the group needs to accomplish in the future.

3. Reports. In addition to the final report groups typically produce, you may ask individuals to submit reports on particular aspects of the topic your group is investigating.

LEADING DISCUSSION

Whether meeting online or face-to-face, discussion leadership is important in group decision making and problem solving. Your group may want to assign group members to lead particular discussions, thereby rotating the responsibility for this task. Or you may want to put one person in charge of leading all group discussions.

1. Briefly review or explain the meeting's purpose. Although group members should be familiar with why the group is meeting, it is nonetheless useful to make the purpose clear at the beginning of the meeting.

2. Distribute any handouts. All group members should have copies of the meeting's agenda and the minutes from the previous meeting.

3. Suggest group procedures. Group members need to agree on the procedures to follow for solving problems and making decisions. These should be discussed before the group enters into any problem solving or decision making.

4. Keep the discussion focused on the group's goal. It is important that groups recognize the importance of task and relationship group functions. However, group meetings should not deteriorate into social hours. Set aside meeting time for socializing so that task time can be used for accomplishing group work.

5. Assist the group in covering all items on the agenda. This means paying attention to how much time is spent on each agenda item. You may have to limit discussion on some items to allow time to discuss all items. However, it may be the case that the group simply has an agenda that is too ambitious. In such a situation, the group will need to decide which items to discuss now and which to place on the agenda for the next meeting. Consider assignment a group member to serve as the process observer who alerts the group members as to how they're using their time.

6. Make sure all group members have an equal opportunity to speak. This doesn't require that everyone will speak for the exact same amount of time. However, everyone should an equal chance to speak. No group member should dominate the conversation.

7. Listen carefully to what each group member has to say. It is particularly important to actively listen to group members who don't often speak so you can encourage their participation.

8. Keep disagreements focused on issues rather than people. Don't let your ego get involved when group members disagree.

RESEARCHING TOPICS

The Internet has become a popular tool for conducting research. Often, you can search full-text data bases available from your university through your own computer! This section discusses research on the World Wide Web, although most of the points are applicable to traditional library research as well.

Critical Questions in Researching Topics

Accessing the WWW can provide a fast and useful way of researching a topic or problem. However, unlike traditional paper publications, anyone with the necessary technology and know-how can put up a page on the Web. Like other parts of the Internet such as email, chat rooms and discussion groups, the WWW is not regulated by any oversight agency.

This means that you have to be particularly critical when examining information posted on a website. In determining the usefulness of information on a website or any other source, you need to ask these questions:

• Who is the author?
• What is the source? (Who sponsors the page?)
• What is the author trying to communicate?
• What are the author's purposes?
• What are the author's conclusions?
• What evidence has the author provided to support these conclusions?
• Is this evidence of sufficient quality and quantity?
• Is there any information the author seems to have omitted?
• What questions is the author trying to answer?
• What problems is the author trying to solve?
• What are the author's underlying assumptions?
• Are those assumptions sound?
• What inferences has the author drawn?
• Are those inferences valid?

Conducting Research

When searching for relevant information, you must examine multiple perspectives on a topic or problem. Ask these questions as you search the WWW for information:

Who else might be knowledgeable on this issue? Individuals often have their own webpages on which they post their work. Also, others may post an individual's work on a website. Using a search engine to locate information on a topic may be as easy as typing in a person's name.

What organizations address the problem you are investigating? For example, a professional organization's conference or meeting website may have information about the topic you are researching.

What events are happening? The answer to this question may lead you to information posted on a webpage or in a newsgroup or to an event you may want to attend.

Where is this information located? There are multiple ways to get to the same website. Also, different search engines and strategies will produce different websites on the same topic. Thus, you want to use a variety of approaches to searching the WWW.

Why is this information important? Considering this question may lead you to other important areas of the problem. For example, telecommuting impacts workplace communication as well as gasoline consumption and highway congestion.

Places to Start

AltaVista The search engine to use for keyword searches. Learn to use the search limiting functions or you will be overwhelmed with the number of websites to check.

Excite Features popular information, such as sports scores, business and financial news, technology news, and your daily horoscope.

HotBot Neon colors with headers such as "Stay Informed" and "Use Technology." Has fairly sophisticated search capabilities that allow you to specialize your search parameters.

The Informant A free service that will save your favorite search engine queries and web sites, check them periodically, and send you email whenever there are new or updated web pages.

Infoseek Has a look and feel similar to Excite. A graphics-intense page than can be slow to load on older computers.

Lycos The Lycos Network includes Tripod.com, Angelfire.com, WhoWhere.com, Mailcity.com, and HotBot.com.

Northern Light Fast becoming one of the more popular search engines, Northern Light searches the web as well as over 5000 full-text documents.

Search Engine Watch This is a site about search engines. Includes search engine reports, facts about search engines, and search engine resources.

Powersearch.com Links to over 1700 specialized search engines.

NBCi. Looks much like Yahoo, including "My NBCi" and free email.

Webcrawler Has Headline News and Daily Toolbox as well as the usual search categories.

Yahoo! Technically a directory rather than a search engine, Yahoo remains the most-used Web directory/search engine. Easy to navigate and fast loading time.

PLANNING, IMPLEMENTING, AND EVALUATING A PROJECT

Planning

Often the downfall of groupwork is poor planning. Group members may have good intentions, but without some structure to guide the group in completing its tasks, group members find themselves confused, without direction, and frustrated. Standard Agenda is one method for systematically analyzing a problem and making decisions about that problem. Standard Agenda can provide groups with needed structure in the planning phases of groupwork.

Standard Agenda is based on Dewey's reflective thinking model. In applying Standard Agenda, group members should follow each of the steps listed below, discussing and writing out the responses to each step. The issues in each step must be discussed and answered in order before the group can progress to the next step. During the implementation and evaluation of your project, refer back to the Standard Agenda to keep you on track and assist in assessing your final product.

Steps in Standard Agenda

1.Understanding the charge:

The goal of this step is for group members to achieve consensus on the purpose and nature of the group.

1. What is the goal of the group's interaction?
2. Who formed the group? Why was the group formed?
3. What resources are available for the group to use during the process, including financial, material and human support?
4. When must the group make its final report, in what form and to whom?

2. Phrasing the Question: What is the problem or issue the group faces? In this step, the group must achieve consensus on what the issue requiring a decision is or what the problem is that must be solved. The issue or problem must be phrased as a single question to guide all future discussions.

3. Fact-finding: In this step, the group should collect as much information as possible about the nature of the problem and inform each group member of these facts. Therefore, communication among group members should be concerned with:

1. presenting the facts related to the problem,
2. critically examining the quality and utility of the facts gathered and presented,
3. determining the effects of the facts gathered on the original question phrased by the group, or the ability to carry out the original task assigned, and
4. whether or not enough information has been gathered to warrant moving to the next step.

4.Establishing Criteria: The goal of this step is to produce a set of statements to guide the group in selection of a final solution. These standards of evaluation are designed to help the group members use agreed-upon measures to arrive at a solution. In this step, identify which criteria are most important (must be met) and which criteria are not as important (ideal, but not essential). You'll use these criteria in Step 6 to identify the best solution to the problem you're solving.

5.Generating alternative solutions: The goal here is to generate and present to the group as many alternative solutions to the original problem as possible. During this step, the group should only attempt to generate alternatives, not evaluate and analyze them.

1. Brainstorm to identify real and imagined alternatives.
2. Record alternatives for use in Step 6.

6.Testing alternative solutions against the criteria: The goal of this step is to find, if possible, the best solution to the original problem (the question phrased in Step 2).

1. Identify and separate each one of the alternatives proposed.
2. Consider the merits and limitations (pros and cons) of each alternative by comparing it to the criteria developed in Step 4.
3. Rate each alternative based on its ability to meet the criteria.
4. Recommend how the final solution/decision should be constructed.

7. Formulating the final solution and preparing the final report:

In this step, the group needs to present a convincing argument for the final solution to the proper authority.

1. Review all the group's procedures and responses for each of the previous six steps in Standard Agenda.
2. Scrutinize the group's determination of a final solution OR carefully construct a final recommended solution based on consideration of other alternatives.
3. Make assignments to individual group members for preparation of the final report.
4. Assemble the final report and, if necessary, rehearse the final presentation.

Implementing

Planning is the key to implementation. Although Standard Agenda provides an outline of how to solve a problem, group members need to have a more concrete blueprint for implementing their decisions. To this end, it is useful for group members to develop an Action Plan that lists dates, tasks, and resources. An example is below.

Example of Group Action Plan

	Group Members: (list) Topic: (include topic) Group's Goal: (phrase as a single statement) GROUP'S SCHEDULE:	Date: 10/4
9/22	Discuss possible topics	Everyone bring course textbook and packet
9/24	Rank order topics	Everyone bring course textbook and packet; Completed Standard Agenda someone to type completed Standard Agenda and make copies for all group members and instructor (due 9/29), someone to type Agenda for 10/1 meeting (due 9/29)
9/29	Meet with instructor to discuss topics	Copies of typed Standard Agenda for group discuss topic members and instructor; questions about project, topic, etc., for instructor
10/1	Complete Group Action Plan	COMM 41 Syllabus and Course Guide; course packet; someone to type Minutes for meeting;someone to type Action Plan and make copies for all group members and instructor (due 10/6)
10/5	Continue focusing topic	Each member brings 2-3 articles or other sources;Course textbook and packet
10/8	Identify project objectives, Beging Brainstorming presentation ideas	Each member brings 1-2 additional articles or other sources; Course packet with assignment requirements; textbook; Someone to type Agenda for 10/15 meeting (due 10/13)
10/15	Discuss presentation format	All research; course packet; textbook; Someone to type Minutes for 10/15 meeting

Identify when you will do the following and what resources you will need

Make assignments for gathering specific information on topic:

divide up research areas

identify significant areas of topic

Continue meeting in order to generate all the information your group needs:

-Establish criteria for effective presentation

-Generate alternative ways to present information

-Achieve consensus on the best way to present the information

format presentation

determine actions, events, materials needed to conduct this presentation

schedule use of these materials

-Construct final presentation and packet

make final revisions on packet (statement of objectives, outline, bibliography)

make final assignments for typing/proofing packet

10/22	Final review of Presentation Packet	Assign someone to make copies of Workshop Packet for group members and instructor; Someone to type Minutes for 10/22 meeting
10/27	Dress rehearsal	All group members; all materials for activity
10/29	Presentation Packet due	two copies of Presentation Packet; packet evaluation form
10/29 - 11/17	Presenetation	All group members; all materials for presentation
11/19	Group Final Evaluation	Course Packet; all group members; someone to type up Final Evaluation (due 12/1)
12/1	Complete group member	Evaluations of group members evaluations

As you can see, this Group Action Plan is quite detailed. By developing such a detailed Plan, all group members know the tasks the group must accomplish to achieve its goal, as well as what resources are needed to complete the project.

Evaluating

In the Action Plan above, 11/19 refers to "Group Final Evaluation." The questions below should assist your group in evaluating both the group's processes and final product.

GROUP PROJECT

Final Evaluation

Now that you have completed your task, your small group's presentation, the final step is to evaluate the small group process and end product. Typically this aspect of working in groups is ignored, with group members going their separate ways once the task is finished. However, by taking the time to review and evaluate how your group worked, you can learn from your experience and apply this to future small group situations.

Use the following questions as a basis for discussing how your group worked (i.e., group processes):

1. Was our original goal achieved? To what extent? If not, was the goal modified? How? Consider:

1. How appropriate was our presentation topic for the class and group members?
2. What was the quality of information gathered for our topic?
3. How effectively did we present our information to the class?
4. Was our audience's response what we had expected? Why or why not?

2. Were the methods by which our group arrived at the goal effective and efficient? What would we do differently next time? What would we do the same way? Consider:

1. Did we follow systematic steps in accomplishing our task? Why or why not?
2. What roles did group members fulfill? How did these help or hinder achievement of our goal?
3. How did the group decide if, when, and where to meet? How effective was this method?
4. How did we assign tasks? How did we determine who would do what?
5. To what degree did group norms encourage cooperation? To what degree can we identify competitive communication in the group?
6. What rules of interaction developed in our group? How did these rules help us achieve our goal? Hinder? How were rules enforced?

3. How do we feel about each other and the group at the end of our project? Are we satisfied with the outcome? Are we getting along reasonably well? Consider:

1. Who were the high participators (in meetings, accepting tasks, etc.)? How were they treated?
2. Who were the low participators? How were they treated?
3. What roles did group members play in maintaining the interpersonal relationships within our group? What impact did this have on accomplishing our task?
4. What self-centered roles were evident in the group? How did these influence the group process?
5. How were group members' suggestions and viewpoints responded to?
6. How did we manage interpersonal conflicts which arose?

4. What have we learned from this experience that we can apply in future small group work?

REFERENCES

Barge, J. K. (1994). Leadership: Communication skills for organizations and groups. New York: St Martin's.

Dobson, A. (1996). Managing Meetings: How to Prepare, How to Take Part and How to Follow Up Effectively. Philadelphia: Trans-Atlantic.

Doyle, T., & Gotthoffer, D. (1999). Quick guide to the Internet for speech communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Hackman, J. R. (1998). Why teams don't work. In R. Tindale, L. Heath, J. Edwards, E. Posavac, F. Bryant, Y. Suarez-Balcazar, E. Henderson-King, & J. Myers (Eds.)., Theory and research on small groups (pp. 245-267). New York: Plenum Press.

Jarboe, S. (1996). Procedures for enhancing group decision making. In R. Hirokawa & M. Poole (Eds.), Communication and group decision making, 2nd ed. (pp. 345-383). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Larson, C., & LaFasto, F. (1989). Teamwork: What must go right, what can go wrong. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Makau, J. (1990). Reasoning and communication: Thinking critically about arguments. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Lembke, S., & Wilson, M. (1998). Putting the "team" into teamwork: Alternative theoretical contributions for contemporary management practice. Human Relations, 51, 927-944.

ONLINE RESOURCES

TEAMS

Teamwork
This page demonstrates teamwork in the process of WWW publishing.

Rural Health in New Zealand and Australia
An article from Healthcare Review that identifies the practical implications of a team-based approach to rural health care.

MEETINGS

Managing Meetings
This page focuses on the use of computer technology in managing meetings. Part of a larger site that addresses issues concerning learning/instructing and new communication technology.

Team Meeting Guide
More practical information on designing and implementing effective meetings. Although this information is aimed at Engineering students, it is applicable across small group contexts.

RESEARCH

Company Research
Need to gather data on specific organizations? Developed by a librarian at Kent State U, Company Research provides step-by-step procedures on researching organizations. "Company data is one of the most commonly sought types of information. The information may be needed for course work, preparing for a job interview, or for investment decisions. Many individuals are unfamiliar with traditional or electronic business resources. This site is designed to simplify the research process and to aid a beginning researcher by offering a self-help approach."

Internet Public Library
Sponsored by the U of Michigan's School of Information in conjunction with Bell+Howell, the IPL contains its own collections as well as tools for searching the WWW for additional information.

Internet Tutorials
Sponsored by the U at Albany Libraries, the site includes information on basic use of the Internet, research guides, search engines, and software training.

Library of Congress Homepage
An invaluable resource for information on nearly every topic you might want to research. Provides help and FAQs on using the site.

Social Research Update
Published quarterly by the Department of Sociology, University of Surrey, Guildford, England. "Each issue, we will cover one topic [e.g., focus groups, researching the WWW, computer assisted personal interviewing] in sufficient depth to indicate the main directions of recent developments and provide a bibliography for further reading. If there is room, we shall also list courses, addresses and other useful information."

MHHE Home | Small Group Home

---

Copyright ©2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy
For further information about this site contact communications@mcgraw-hill.com.
McGraw-Hill Higher Education is one of the many fine businesses of The McGraw-Hill Companies.