GLOSSARY

accommodation In Piaget's terminology, change in an existing cognitive structure to include new information.

acting-out behavior Misbehavior (such as lying or stealing) spurred by emotional turmoil.

active euthanasia Deliberate action taken to shorten the life of a terminally ill person in order to end suffering or to allow death with dignity; also called mercy killing. Compare passive euthanasia.

activity theory Theory of aging, proposed by Neugarten and others, which holds that in order to age successfully a person must remain as active as possible. Compare disengagement theory.

acute medical conditions Illnesses that last a short time.

adaptation Piagetian term for adjustment to new information about the environment through the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation.

adaptive mechanisms Vaillant's term to describe four characteristic ways people adapt to life circumstances: mature, immature, psychotic, and neurotic.

adolescence Developmental transition between childhood and adulthood entailing major physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes.

adolescent growth spurt Sharp increase in height and weight that precedes sexual maturity.

adolescent rebellion Pattern of emotional turmoil, characteristic of a minority of adolescents, which may involve conflict with family, alienation from adult society, and hostility toward adults' values.

age-differentiated Life structure in which primary roles---learning, working, and leisure---are based on age; typical in industrialized societies. Compare age-integrated.

age-integrated Life structure in which primary roles---learning, working, and leisure---are open to adults of all ages and can be interspersed throughout the life span. Compare age-differentiated.

ageism Prejudice or discrimination against a person (most commonly an older person) based on age.

aging in place Remaining in one's own home, with or without assistance, during late life.

alleles Pair of inherited genes (alike or different) that affect a particular trait.

_prosocial_behavior">altruism, or prosocial behavior Behavior intended to help others without external reward.

Alzheimer's disease Progressive, degenerative brain disorder characterized by irreversible deterioration in memory, intelligence, awareness, and control of bodily functions, eventually leading to death.

ambivalent (resistant) attachment Pattern of attachment in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact upon his or her return.

amniocentesis Prenatal medical procedure in which a sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn and analyzed to determine whether any of certain genetic defects are present.

androgynous Personality type integrating positive characteristics typically thought of as masculine with positive characteristics typically thought of as feminine.

animism Tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive.

anorexia nervosa Eating disorder characterized by self-starvation.

anoxia Lack of oxygen, which may cause brain damage.

anticipatory grief Grief that begins before an expected death in preparation for bereavement.

Apgar scale Standard measurement of a newborn's condition; it assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration.

artificial insemination Injection of sperm into a woman's cervix in order to enable her to conceive.

assimilation In Piaget's terminology, incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure.

assisted suicide Death in which a physician or someone else helps a person take his or her own life.

attachment Active, affectionate reciprocal relationship between two persons (usually infant and parent), in which interaction reinforces and strengthens the link.

attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Syndrome characterized by persistent inattention, impulsivity, low tolerance for frustration, distractibility, and considerable activity at inappropriate times and places.

authoritarian parents In Baumrind's terminology, parents whose child-rearing style emphasizes the values of control and obedience. Compare authoritative parents and permissive parents.

authoritative parents In Baumrind's terminology, parents whose child-rearing style blends respect for a child's individuality with an effort to instill social values in the child. Compare authoritarian parent. and permissive parents.

autobiographical memory Memory of specific events in one's own life.

autoimmunity Tendency of an aging body to mistake its own tissues for foreign invaders and to attack and destroy these tissues.

autonomy versus shame and doubt In Erikson's theory, the second crisis in psychosocial development, occurring between about 18 months and 3 years, in which children achieve a balance between self-determination and control by others.

autosomes The 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression.

avoidant attachment Pattern of attachment in which an infant rarely cries when separated from the primary caregiver and avoids contact upon his or her return.

balanced investment Pattern of retirement activity allocated among family, work, and leisure. Compare family-focused lifestyle.

basic trust versus basic mistrust In Erikson's theory, the first crisis in psychosocial development, occurring between birth and about 18 months, in which infants develop a sense of the reliability of people and objects in their world.

battered child syndrome Condition showing symptoms of physical abuse of a child.

Bayley Scales of Infant Development Standardized test of infants' mental and motor development.

behavior therapy Therapeutic approach using principles of learning theory to encourage desired behaviors or eliminate undesired ones; also called behavioral modification.

behaviorism Learning theory that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and events and the predictable role of environment in causing behavior.

behaviorist approach Approach to the study of cognitive development, based on learning theory, which is concerned with the basic mechanics of learning.

bereavement Loss, due to death, of someone to whom one feels close and the process of adjustment to the loss.

bilingual Fluent in two languages.

bilingual education System of teaching foreign-speaking children in two languages---their native language and English---and later switching to all-English instruction after the children develop enough fluency in English.

birth trauma Injury sustained at time of birth due to oxygen deprivation, mechanical injury, infection, or disease.

body image Descriptive and evaluative beliefs about one's appearance.

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale Neurological and behavioral test to measure neonates' response to the environment; it assesses interactive behaviors, motor behaviors, physiological control, and response to stress.

broader self-definition versus preoccupation with work roles One of three adjustments to late adulthood described by Peck, in which people come to define themselves by interests and attributes other than work.

bulimia nervosa Eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge quantities of food and then purges the body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise.

burnout Syndrome of emotional exhaustion and a sense that one can no longer accomplish anything on the job.

canalization Limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics.

caregiver burnout Condition of physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion affecting adults who care for aged persons.

case study Scientific study covering a single case or life, based on notes taken by observers or on published biographical materials.

central nervous system Brain and spinal cord.

centration In Piaget's theory, a limitation of preoperational thought that leads the child to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others, often leading to illogical conclusions.

cephalocaudal principle Principle that development proceeds in a head-to-toe direction, that is, that upper parts of the body develop before lower parts.

cesarean delivery Delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the uterus.

child abuse Maltreatment of a child involving physical injury.

child-directed speech (CDS), or motherese Form of speech often used in talking to babies or toddlers; includes slow, simplified speech, a high-pitched voice, and much use of repetition and questions.

child neglect Withholding of necessary care from a child, such as food, clothing, and supervision.

childhood depression Affective disorder characterized by such symptoms as a prolonged sense of friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death or suicide.

cholesterol Waxy substance in human and animal tissue, excess deposits of which can narrow blood vessels, leading to heart disease.

chorionic villus sampling Prenatal diagnostic procedure in which tissue from villi (hairlike projections of the membrane surrounding the embryo) is analyzed for birth defects.

chromosome Rod-shaped structure that carries the genes, the transmitters of heredity; in the normal human being, there are 46 chromosomes.

chronic medical conditions Illnesses or impairments that persist for at least 3 months.

circular reactions In Piaget's terminology, processes by which an infant learns to reproduce desired occurrences originally discovered by chance.

class inclusion Understanding of the relationship between the whole and the parts.

classical conditioning Kind of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus (one that does not originally elicit a particular response) acquires the power to elicit the response after the stimulus is repeatedly associated with another stimulus that ordinarily does elicit the response.

climacteric Period of 2 to 5 years during which a woman's body undergoes physiological changes that bring on menopause.

code switching Process of changing one's speech to match the situation, as with people who are bilingual.

cognitive-appraisal model Model of coping, proposed by Lazarus and Folkman, which holds that on the basis of continuous appraisal of their relationship with the environment, people choose appropriate coping strategies to deal with situations that tax their normal resources.

cognitive perspective View of human development which is concerned with qualitative changes in thought processes that affect behavior and which sees people as actively shaping their adaptation to the environment.

cognitive play Forms of play that reveal children's mental development.

cohabitation Status of a couple who live together and maintain a sexual relationship without being legally married.

cohort Group of people who share a similar experience, such as growing up in the same place at the same time.

coming out Process of openly disclosing one's homosexual orientation.

commitment In Marcia's terminology, personal investment in an occupation or system of beliefs.

committed compliance In Kochanska's terminology, a toddler's wholehearted obedience to a parent's orders without reminders or lapses.

componential element In Sternberg's triarchic theory, the analytical aspect of intelligence, which determines how efficiently people process information and solve problems.

concordant Statistically similar in the incidence of certain genetically influenced traits or predispositions; characteristic of monozygotic twins.

concrete operations In Piaget's theory, the third stage of cognitive development (approximately from ages 7 to 12), during which children develop logical but not abstract thinking.

congruence model Model of coping, proposed by Kahana, which holds that life satisfaction or stress depends on the match between an individual's needs and an environment's ability to meet those needs.

conjunctive faith Fifth of Fowler's stages of faith development, in which adults (usually in midlife or beyond) struggle with life's conflicts and contradictions, recognize the limitations of reason, and seek a deeper understanding and acceptance of mortality.

conscience Internal standards of behavior, which usually control conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated.

conservation In Piaget's terminology, awareness that two objects which are equal according to a certain measure (such as length, weight, or quantity) remain equal in the face of perceptual alteration (for example, a change in shape) so long as nothing has been added to or taken away from either object.

contextual element In Sternberg's triarchic theory, the practical aspect of intelligence, which determines how effectively people deal with their environment.

contextual perspective View of human development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context.

continuity theory Theory of aging, described by Atchley, which holds that in order to age successfully people must maintain a balance of continuity and change in both the internal and external structures of their lives.

control group In an experiment, a group of people who are similar to the people in the experimental group but who do not receive the treatment whose effects are to be measured. The results obtained with the control group are compared with the results obtained with the experimental group.

convergent thinking Thinking aimed at finding the one "right" answer to a problem. Compare divergent thinking.

coping Adaptive thinking or behavior aimed at reducing or relieving stress that arises from harmful, threatening, or challenging conditions.

coregulation Transitional stage in the control of behavior during middle childhood, in which parent and child share power over the child's behavior, the parent exercising general supervision and the child exercising moment-by-moment self-regulation.

correlational study Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists, both in direction and in magnitude.

creativity Ability to see things in a new light, resulting in a novel product, the identification of a previously unrecognized problem, or the formulation of new and unusual solutions.

crisis In Marcia's terminology, a period of conscious decision making related to identity formation.

critical period Specific time during development when a given event will have the greatest impact.

cross-modal transfer Ability to identify by sight an item earlier felt but not seen.

cross-sectional study Study design in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion, providing comparative information about different age cohorts. Compare longitudinal study.

cross-sequential study Study design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques by assessing people in a cross-sectional sample more than once.

crystallized intelligence Type of intelligence, proposed by Horn and Cattell, involving the ability to remember and use learned information; it is relatively dependent on education and cultural background. Compare fluid intelligence.

cultural bias Tendency of intelligence tests to include items calling for knowledge or skills more familiar or meaningful to some cultural groups than to others, thus placing some test-takers at an advantage or disadvantage due to their cultural background.

culture-fair test Intelligence test that deals with experiences common to various cultures, in an attempt to avoid cultural bias. Compare culture-free test.

culture-free test Intelligence test that, if it were possible to design, would have no culturally linked content. Compare culture-fair test.

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