GLOSSARY

data Information obtained through research.

death education Programs to educate people about death and dying and to help them deal with related issues in their personal and professional lives.

decenter In Piaget's terminology, to think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation; characteristic of operational thought.

deferred imitation In Piaget's terminology, reproduction of an observed behavior after the passage of time by calling up a stored symbol of it.

dementia Deterioration in cognitive and behavioral functioning due to physiological causes.

Denver Developmental Screening Test Test given to children 1 month to 6 years old to determine whether they are developing normally; it assesses gross motor skills, fine motor skills, language development, and psychosocial development.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Chemical of which genes are composed, which controls the functions of body cells.

dependent variable In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable. Compare independent variable.

depression Affective disorder in which a person feels unhappy and often has trouble eating, sleeping, or concentrating.

difficult children Children with irritable temperament, irregular biological rhythms, and intense emotional responses.

discipline Tool of socialization, which includes methods of molding children's character and of teaching them to exercise self-control and engage in acceptable behavior.

disengagement theory Theory of aging, proposed by Cumming and Henry, which holds that successful aging is characterized by mutual withdrawal between the older person and society. Compare activity theory.

dishabituation Increase in responsiveness after presentation of a new stimulus. Compare habituation.

disorganized-disoriented attachment Pattern of attachment in which an infant, after being separated from the primary caregiver, shows contradictory behaviors upon his or her return.

divergent thinking Thinking that produces a variety of fresh, diverse possibilities. Compare convergent thinking.

dizygotic twins Twins conceived by the union of two different ova (or a single ovum that has split) with two different sperm cells within a brief period of time; also called fraternal twins.

dominant inheritance Pattern of inheritance in which, when an individual receives contradictory alleles for a trait, only the dominant allele is expressed.

Down syndrome Chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate-to-severe mental retardation and by such physical signs as a downward-sloping skinfold at the inner corners of the eyes.

drug therapy Administration of drugs to treat emotional disorders.

dual-process model Model of cognitive functioning in late adulthood, proposed by Baltes, which identifies and seeks to measure two dimensions of intelligence: mechanics and pragmatics.

durable power of attorney Legal instrument that appoints an individual to make decisions in the event of another person's incapacitation.

dyslexia Developmental disorder in learning to read.

easy children Children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms, and a readiness to accept new experiences.

ecological approach Bronfenbrenner's system of understanding development, which identifies five levels of environmental influence: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

ecological validity Characteristic of adult intelligence tests that indicate competence in dealing with real problems faced by adults.

ego In Freudian theory, an aspect of personality that develops during infancy and operates on the reality principle, seeking acceptable means of gratification in dealing with the real world.

ego integrity versus despair In Erikson's theory, the eighth and final crisis in psychosocial development, in which people in late adulthood either achieve a sense of integrity by accepting the lives they have lived, and thus accept death, or yield to despair that their lives cannot be relived.

egocentrism In Piaget's terminology, inability to consider another person's point of view; a characteristic of preoperational thought. (199)

elaboration Mnemonic strategy of making mental associations involving items to be remembered, sometimes with an imagined scene or story. (275)

elder abuse Maltreatment or neglect of dependent older persons, or violation of their personal rights. (598)

Elderhostel International network of colleges and other educational institutions offering short, noncredit, residential courses for adults age 55 and over and their spouses. (571)

electronic fetal monitoring Mechanical monitoring of fetal heartbeat during labor and delivery. (83)

embryonic stage Second stage of gestation (2 to 8--12 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs. (63)

embryoscopy Prenatal medical procedure in which a scope is inserted in the abdomen of a pregnant woman to permit viewing of the embryo for diagnosis and treatment of abnormalities. (73)

emotion-focused coping In the cognitive-appraisal model, coping strategy directed toward managing or regulating the emotional response to a stressful situation so as to lessen its physical or psychological impact; sometimes called palliative coping. Compare problem-focused coping. (582)

emotional abuse Nonphysical action or failure to act that damages a child's behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning. (241)

emotional flexibility versus emotional impoverishment One of four adjustments of middle age described by Peck, in which the ability to shift emotional investment permits adaptation to losses. (508)

emotional intelligence In Salovey and Mayer's terminology, ability to understand and regulate emotions; an important component of effective, intelligent behavior. (417)

emotions Subjective feelings, such as sadness, joy, and fear, which arise in response to situations and experiences and are expressed through some kind of altered behavior. (150)

empathy Ability to put oneself in another person's place and feel what that person feels. (190)

empty nest Transitional phase of parenting following the last child's leaving the parents' home. (521)

encapsulation In Hoyer's terminology, progressive dedication of information processing and fluid thinking to specific knowledge systems, making knowledge more readily accessible and compensating for declines in cognitive machinery. (488)

endometriosis Complication of menstruation, in which cells from the uterine lining, which have entered the abdominal cavity and have become attached to reproductive or other organs, swell due to hormonal stimulation, causing pain, discomfort, intestinal blockage, or infertility. (411)

English-immersion Approach to teaching English as a second language in which instruction is presented only in English from the outset of formal education. (282)

enuresis Bed-wetting. (188)

environment Totality of nongenetic influences on development, external to the self. (6)

environmental press model Modelof coping, proposed by Lawton, which holds that stress and adaptation depend on the fit between environmental demands and an individual's competence to meet them. (581)

episodic memory Long-term memory of specific experiences or events, linked to time and place. (207, 568)

equilibration In Piaget's terminology, the tendency to strive for equilibrium (balance) among cognitive elements within the organism and between it and the outside world. (30)

erectile dysfunction Inability of a man to achieve or maintain a sufficiently erect penis for satisfactory sexual performance. (477)

ethological perspective View of human development that focuses on the biological and evolutionary bases of behavior. (31)

experiential element In Sternberg's triarchic theory, the insightful aspect of intelligence, which determines how effectively people approach both novel and familiar tasks. (413)

experiment Rigorously controlled, replicable (that is, repeatable) procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. (17)

experimental group In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study; any changes in these people are compared with changes in the control group. (17)

explicit memory Memory that is intentional and conscious. Compare implicit memory. (207)

exploratory competence Cognitive capacity underlying the variance in toddlers' ability to sustain attention and engage in sophisticated symbolic play. (133)

extended family Multigenerational kinship network of parents, children, and more distant relatives, sometimes living together in an extended-family household. (301, 528)

external memory aids Mnemonic strategies using something outside the person, such as a list. (275)

extinction In operant conditioning, return of a response to the baseline level when the response is no longer reinforced. (28)

family-focused lifestyle Pattern of retirement activity that revolves around family, home, and companions. Compare balanced investment. (593)

family therapy Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees the whole family together to analyze patterns of family functioning. (320)

fast mapping Process by which a child absorbs the meaning of a new word after hearing it only once or twice in conversation. (203)

fertilization Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote; also called conception. (40)

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy. (66)

fetal stage Final stage of gestation (from 8--12 weeks to birth), characterized by increased detail of body parts and greatly enlarged body size. (64)

filial crisis In Marcoen's terminology, normative development of middle age, in which adults learn to balance love and duty to their parents with autonomy within a two-way relationship. (527)

filial maturity Stage of life, proposed by Marcoen and others, in which middle-aged children, as the outcome of a filial crisis, learn to accept and meet their parents' need to depend on them. (527)

fine motor skills Abilities such as buttoning and copying figures, which involve the small muscles and eye-hand coordination. (185)

five-factor model Costa and McCrae's model of personality, consisting of five groupings ofassociated traits: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. (434)

fluid intelligence Type of intelligence, proposed by Horn and Cattell, which is applied to novel problems and is relatively independent of educational and cultural influences. Compare crystallized intelligence. (485)

fontanels Soft spots on head of young infant. (85)

foreclosure Identity status, described by Marcia, in which a person who has not spent time considering alternatives (that is, has not been in crisis) is committed to other people's plans for his or her life. (370)

formal operations In Piaget's theory, the final stage of cognitive development, characterized by the ability to think abstractly. (348)

free radicals Unstable, highly reactive atoms or molecules formed during metabolism, which can cause bodily damage. (550)

functional age Measure of a person's ability to function effectively in his or her physical and social environment in comparison with others of the same chronological age. (543)

gametes Sex cells (sperm or ova). (42)

gateway drugs Drugs (such as alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco) whose use often leads to the use of more addictive substances (such as cocaine and heroin). (342)

gender Significance of being male or female. (229)

gender constancy, or gender conservation Awareness that one will always be male or female. (233)

gender differences Psychological or behavioral differences between males and females. (229)

gender identity Awareness, developed in early childhood, that one is male or female. (230)

gender roles Behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and traits that a culture considers appropriate for males and for females. (230)

gender schema In Bem's theory, a pattern of behavior organized around gender. (233)

gender-schema theory Theory, proposed by Bem, that children socialize themselves in their gender roles by developing a concept of what it means to be male or female in a particular culture. (233)

gender splitting In Levinson's terminology, rigid divisions between masculine and feminine roles. (439)

gender stereotypes Exaggerated generalizations about male or female role behavior. (231)

gender-typing Socialization process by which children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles. (158, 230)

gene Basic functional unit of heredity, which contains all inherited material passed from biological parents to children. (42)

generativity versus stagnation In Erikson's theory, the seventh crisis in psychosocial development, in which the middle-aged adult develops a concern with establishing and guiding the next generation or else experiences stagnation (a sense of inactivity or lifelessness). (508)

generic memory Memory that produces a script of familiar routines to guide behavior. (207)

genetic counseling Clinical service that advises couples of their probable risk of having children with particular hereditary defects. (53)

genetic-programming theories Theories that explain biological aging as resulting from a genetically determined developmental timetable. Compare variable-rate theories. (550)

genetics Study of hereditary factors affecting development. (40)

genotype Genetic makeup of an individual, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics. (44)

geriatrics Branch of medicine concerned with processes of aging and age-related medical conditions. (543)

germinal stage First 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division and increasing complexity; the stage ends when the conceptus attaches itself to the wall of the uterus. (60)

gerontology Study of the aged and the process of aging. (543)

gestation The approximately 266-day period of development between fertilization and birth. (40)

grief Emotional response experienced in the early phases of bereavement. (618)

grief therapy Treatment to help the bereaved cope with loss. (622)

grief work Common pattern of working out of psychological issues connected with grief, in which the bereaved person accepts the loss, releases the bond with the deceased, and rebuilds a life without that person. (621)

gross motor skills Physical skills such as jumping and running, which involve the large muscles. (185)

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