GLOSSARY

nativism Theory that human beings have an inborn capacity for language acquisition. (139)

natural childbirth Method of childbirth, developed by Dr. Grantly Dick-Read, that seeks to prevent pain by eliminating the mother's fear of childbirth through education about the physiology of reproduction and training in methods of breathing and relaxation during delivery. (82)

naturalistic observation Method of research in which people's behavior is studied in natural settings without the observer's intervention or manipulation. Compare laboratory observation. (13)

near-death experiences Profound, subjective experiences reported by people who have come close to death; these may include a feeling of well-being, enhanced clarity of thinking, out-of-body sensations, and visions of bright lights or mystical encounters. (619)

negativism Behavior characteristic of toddlers, in which they express their desire for independence by resisting authority. (170)

neonatal jaundice Condition in many newborn babies caused by immaturity of liver and evidenced by yellowish appearance; can lead to brain damage if not treated promptly. (86)

neonatal period First 4 weeks of life, a time of transition from intrauterine dependency to independent existence. (84)

neonate Newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old. (84)

neurons Nerve cells. (86)

nonnormative life events In the timing-of-events model, life experiences which are unusual and thus not normally anticipated---or which are ordinary but come at unexpected times---and which may have a major impact on development. Compare normative life events. (441)

nonshared environmental effects The unique environment in which each sibling grows up, consisting of dissimilar influences or influences that affect each child differently. (56)

normative-crisis models Theoretical models that describe psychosocial development in terms of a definite sequence of age-related changes. (435)

normative life events In the timing-of-events model, commonly expected life experiences that occur at customary times. Compare nonnormative life events. (441)

nuclear family Two-generational economic, kinship, and living unit made up of parents and their biological or adopted children. (529)

obesity Extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height, and body type; sometimes defined as having a weight-for-height in the 95th percentile of children the same age and sex or weighing at least 20 percent more than recommended maximum guidelines. (264)

object permanence In Piaget's terminology, the understanding that a person or object still exists when out of sight. (124)

observational learning In social-learning theory, learning that occurs through watching the behavior of others. (28)

observer bias Tendency of an observer to misinterpret or distort data to fit his or her expectations. (14)

operant conditioning Form of learning in which a person tends to repeat a behavior that has been reinforced or to cease a behavior that has been punished. (27, 120)

organization (1) In Piaget's terminology, integration of knowledge into a system to make sense of the environment. (30) (2) Mnemonic strategy consisting of categorizing material to be remembered. (275)

osteoporosis Condition affecting 1 in 4 postmenopausal women, in which the bones become thin and brittle as a result of calcium depletion. (481)

Otis-Lennon School Ability Test Group intelligence test for kindergarten to twelfth grade. (276)

ovulation Expulsion of ovum from ovary, which occurs about once every 28 days in a mature woman until menopause. (40)

ovum transfer Method of fertilization in which a woman who cannot produce normal ova receives an ovum donated by a fertile woman. (461)

palliative care Care aimed at relieving pain and suffering and allowing the terminally ill to die in peace, comfort, and dignity. (614)

parent-support ratio In a given population, number of people age 85 and over for every 100 people ages 50 to 64, who may need to provide care and support for them. (525)

partner abuse Violence directed against a current or former spouse or intimate partner. (454)

passive euthanasia Deliberate with-holding or discontinuation of life-prolonging treatment of a terminally ill person in order to end suffering or allow death with dignity. Compare active euthanasia. (633)

permissive parents In Baumrind's terminology, parents whose child-rearing style emphasizes the values of self-expression and self-regulation. Compare authoritarian parents and authoritative parents. (238)

persistent vegetative state State in which a patient, though technically alive, has only rudimentary brain functioning. (634)

personal fable In Elkind's terminology, conviction that one is special, unique, and not subject to the rules that govern the rest of the world. (352)

personality Person's unique and relatively consistent way of feeling, reacting, and behaving. (6)

phenotype Observable characteristic of a person. (44)

Piagetian approach Approach to the study of cognitive development based on Piaget's theory, which describes qualitative stages, or typical changes, in children's and adolescents' cognitive functioning. (119)

plasticity Modifiability of a person's performance. (554)

polygenic inheritance Interaction of several sets of genes to produce a complex trait, such as skin color or intelligence. (44)

postformal thought Mature type of thinking, which relies on subjective experience and intuition as well as logic and is useful in dealing with ambiguity, uncertainty, inconsistency, contradiction, imperfection, and compromise. (412)

postmature Referring to a fetus not yet born 2 weeks after the due date or 42 weeks after the mother's last menstrual period. (95)

pragmatics The practical knowledge needed to use language for communicative purposes. (204)

pragmatics of intelligence In Baltes's dual-process model, the dimension of intelligence that tends to grow with age and includes practical thinking, application of accumulated knowledge and skills, specialized expertise, professional productivity, and wisdom. Compare mechanics of intelligence. (566)

preconventional morality First level in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, in which control is external and rules are obeyed in order to gain rewards or avoid punishment. (352)

preimplantation genetic diagnosis Medical procedure in which cells from an embryo conceived by in vitro fertilization are analyzed for genetic defects prior to implantation of the embryo in the mother's uterus. (73)

prejudice Unfavorable attitude toward members of certain groups outside one's own, especially racial or ethnic groups. (315)

prelinguistic speech Forerunner of linguistic speech; utterance of sounds that are not words. Includes crying, cooing, babbling, and accidental and deliberate imitation of sounds without understanding their meaning. (134)

premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) Mood disorder similar to clinical depression, occurring before a menstrual period. (411)

premenstrual syndrome (PMS) Disorder producing symptoms of physical discomfort and emotional tension during the 1 to 2 weeks before a menstrual period. (411)

preoperational stage In Piaget's theory, the second major stage of cognitive development (approximately from age 2 to age 7), in which children become more sophisticated in their use of symbolic thought but are not yet able to use logic. (194)

prepared childbirth Method of childbirth, developed by Dr. Ferdinand Lamaze, that uses instruction, breathing exercises, and social support to induce controlled physical responses to uterine contractions, reducing fear and pain. (82)

presbycusis Gradual loss of hearing, which accelerates after age 55, especially with regard to sounds at the upper frequencies. (473)

presbyopia Farsightedness associated with aging, resulting when the lens of the eye becomes less elastic. (473)

preterm (premature) infants Infants born before thirty-seventh week of gestation. (91)

primary aging Gradual, inevitable process of bodily deterioration throughout the life span. Compare secondary aging. (542)

primary memory Brief initial storage for small amounts of recently acquired information. (568)

primary sex characteristics Organs directly related to reproduction, which enlarge and mature during adolescence. Compare secondary sex characteristics. (333)

priming Increase in ease of doing a task or remembering information as a result of a previous encounter with the task or information. (568)

private speech Talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate. (204)

problem-focused coping In the cognitive-appraisal model, coping strategy directed toward eliminating, managing, or improving a stressful situation. Compare emotion-focused coping. (582)

procedural memory Long-term memory of motor skills, habits, and ways of doing things, which often can be recalled without conscious effort; sometimes called implicit memory. (568)

proximodistal principle Principle that development proceeds from within to without---that parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities. (100)

psychoanalytic perspective View of human development concerned with unconscious forces motivating behavior. (21)

psychometric approach Approach to the study of cognitive development that seeks to measure the quantity of intelligence a person possesses. (119)

psychosexual development In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of personality development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals. (21)

psychosocial development In Erikson's theory, the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, or self; it consists of eight maturationally determined stages throughout the life span, each revolving around a particular crisis or turning point in which the person is faced with achieving a healthy balance between alternative positive and negative traits. (24)

puberty Process by which a person attains sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce. (330)

punishment In operant conditioning, a stimulus, experienced following a behavior, which decreases the probability that the behavior will be repeated. (27)

qualitative change Change in kind, structure, or organization, such as the change from nonverbal to verbal communication. (3)

quantitative change Change in number or amount of something, such as height, weight, or vocabulary. (3)

quasi experiment Study which resembles an experiment in that it attempts to measure change or to find differences among groups, but which lacks control based on random assignment. (19)

random selection Method of sampling that ensures representativeness because each member of the population has an equal chance to be selected. (12)

reaction range Potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait. (55)

real self The self one actually is. Compare ideal self. (223)

recall Ability to reproduce material from memory. Compare recognition. (206)

recessive inheritance Expression of a recessive (nondominant) trait, which occurs only if the offspring receives identical recessive alleles from both parents. (44)

recognition Ability to identify a previously encountered stimulus. Compare recall. (206)

reflex behaviors Automatic, involuntary responses to stimulation. (88)

rehearsal Mnemonic strategy to keep an item in working memory through conscious repetition. (275)

reinforcement In operant conditioning, a stimulus, experienced following a behavior, which increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated. (27)

relational theory Theory, proposed by Miller, that all personality growth occurs within emotional connections, not separate from them. (25)

reliability Consistency of a test in measuring performance. (129)

representational ability In Piaget's terminology, capacity to mentally represent objects and experiences, largely through the use of symbols. (123)

representational mappings In neo-Piagetian terminology, the second stage in development of self-definition, in which a child makes logical connections between aspects of the self but still sees these characteristics in all-or-nothing terms. (223)

representational systems In neo-Piagetian terminology, the third stage in development of self-definition, characterized by breadth, balance, and the integration and assessment of various aspects of the self. (299)

reserve capacity Ability of body organs and systems to put forth 4 to 10 times as much effort as usual under stress; also called organ reserve. (555)

resilient children Children who bounce back from circumstances that would have a highly negative impact on the emotional development of most children. (322)

respite care Substitute supervision and care for a dependent person, to allow time off for the regular caregiver. (528)

revolving door syndrome Tendency for young adults to return to their parents' home after completing their education or in times of financial, marital, or other trouble. (521)

rough-and-tumble-play Vigorous play involving wrestling, hitting, and chasing. (265)

Next Page...