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PRAXIS II™ TOPICS
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Where to Review in Educational Psychology
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I. STUDENTS AS LEARNERS
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A. Student Development and the Learning Process
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1. Theoretical foundations about how learning occurs: how students construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop habits of mind.
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Chapters 7-11, and 13
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Examples of important theorists:
- Jean Piaget
- Lev Vygotsky
- Howard Gardner
- Robert Sternberg
- Albert Bandura
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- Ch 2: 37-47, 52-53; Ch 3: 102; Ch 10: 337
- Ch 2: 47-53; Ch 10: 337
- Ch 4: 114, 115, 120, 122-125
- Ch 4: 114, 115, 118-119
- Ch 7: 243-245
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Important terms that relate to learning theory:
- Conservation
- Constructivism
- Equilibration
- Co-construction
- Private speech
- Scaffolding
- Zone of proximal development
- Learning
- Knowledge
- Memory
- Schemas
- Transfer
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- Ch 2: 41-42
- Ch 1: 6-7; Ch 10: 337; Ch 11: 372-374, 378-379, 385-386, 390-391, 396-398, 400
- Ch 2; 38
- Ch10: "social constructivism"
- Ch 2: 50
- Ch 10: 339-340; Ch 2: 49-50
- Ch 2: 47-49
- Ch 7: 226-234; 258-260
- Ch 8: 283, 289
- Ch 8: 270-283
- Ch 2: 37; Ch 8: 277
- Ch 9: 327-330
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2. Human development in the physical, social, emotional, moral, and cognitive domains
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Chapters 2 and 3
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Contribution of important theorists:
- Jean Piaget
- Lev Vygotsky
- Erik Erikson
- Lawrence Kohlberg
- Carol Gilligan
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- Ch 2: 37-47, 52-53; Ch 3: 94-95, 102; Ch 10: 337
- Ch 2: 47-53
- Ch 3: 72, 73, 75
- Ch 3: 102, 103, 104, 106
- Ch 3: 104
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Major progressions in each developmental domain and the ranges of individual variation within each domain
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Chapters 2 and 3
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Impact of students' physical, social, emotional, moral, and cognitive development on their learning and how to address these factors when making decisions
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Chapters 2 and 3
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How development in one domain, such as physical, may affect performance in another domain, such as social
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Chapters 2 and 3
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B. Students as Diverse Learners
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1. Differences in the ways students learn and perform
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Chapter 4
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Learning styles
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Ch 4: 132-134
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Multiple intelligences
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Ch 4: 117-125
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Performance modes
- Concrete operational thinking
- Visual and aural learners
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Ch 2: 42-44
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Gender differences
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Ch 5: 165-176
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Cultural expectations and styles
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Ch 5: 144-163
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2. Areas of exceptionality in students' learning
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Chapter 6
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Special physical or sensory challenges
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Ch 6: 195-197
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Learning disabilities
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Ch 6: 185-188
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ADHD
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Ch 6: 188-192
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Functional and mental retardation
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Ch 6: 192-195
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3. Legislation and institutional responsibilities relating to exceptional students
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Chapter 6
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Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA); Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA); Section 504 Protections for Students
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Ch 6: 205-206
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Inclusion, mainstreaming, and "least restrictive environment"
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Ch 6: 206-207
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4. Approaches for accommodating various learning styles, intelligences, or exceptionalities
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Chapter 4: 122-123, 133-134; Chapter 6
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Alternative assessment
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Ch 15: 557-559 Ch 16: 583-591
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Testing modifications
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Ch 6: 212-213; "Assistive Technologies"
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5. Process of second language acquisition and strategies to support the learning of students
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Chapter 5: 153-155
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6. Understanding of influences of individual experiences, talents, and prior learning, as well as language, culture, family, and community values on students' learning
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Chapters 3 and 5
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Multicultural backgrounds
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Ch 5: 144-153
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Age-appropriate knowledge and behavior
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Ch 3: 86-88
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The student culture at school
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Ch 3: 88-95
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Family backgrounds
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Ch 3: 76-85
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Linguistic patterns and differences
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Ch 5: 153-155
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C. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
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1. Theoretical foundations of human motivation and behavior
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Chapter 13
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Important terms that relate to motivation and behavior:
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Chapter 13
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2. How knowledge of human motivation and behavior should influence strategies for organizing and supporting individual and group work in the classroom
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Chapter 13
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3. Factors and situations that are likely to promote or diminish student's motivation to learn, and how to help students to become self-motivated
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Chapter 7: 239-245 Chapter 13
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4. Principles on effective classroom management and strategies to promote positive relationships, cooperation, and purposeful learning
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Chapter 14
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Establishing daily procedures and routines
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Ch 14: 500-503
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Establishing classroom rules
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Ch 14: 500-503
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Using natural and logical consequences
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Ch 14: 515-517
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Providing positive guidance
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Ch 14: 500, 503-509
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Modeling conflict resolution, problem solving, and anger management
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Ch 14: 517-523
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Using objective behavior descriptions
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Ch 14: 515
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Responding to student behavior
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Ch 14: 500, 515-520
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Arranging classroom space
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Ch 14: 496-499
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II. INSTRUCTION & ASSESSMENT
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A. Instructional Strategies
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1. Major cognitive processes
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Chapters 8 & 9
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Critical thinking
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Ch 9: 308-309
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Creative thinking
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Ch 9: 314-317
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Higher-order thinking
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Ch 9
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Inductive and deductive thinking
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Ch 9: 307-308
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Problem structuring and problem solving
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Ch 9: 319-325
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Memorization and recall
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Ch 8: 270-281
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Social reasoning
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Ch 3: 97-108
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Representation of ideas
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Ch 9: 313-314
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2. Major categories, advantages, and appropriate uses of instructional strategies
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Chapters 10, 11, and 12
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Cooperative learning
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Ch 10: 345-347
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Direct instruction
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Ch 12: 414
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Discovery learning
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Ch 2: 429-430
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Whole-group discussion
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Ch 12: 347
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Concept mapping
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Ch 9: 304
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Questioning
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Ch 12: 416-417, 418-419
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Learning centers
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Ch 12: 421
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Small-group work
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Ch 10: 349-351
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Project approach
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Ch 10: 323-324
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3. Principles, techniques, and methods associated with major instructional strategies
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Chapters 10 and 12
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Direct instruction
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Ch 12: 414
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Student-centered models
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Ch 12: 423-432
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4. Methods for enhancing student learning through the use of a variety of resources and materials
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Computers, internet resources, Web pages, e-mail
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Ch 12: 433-443 Technology & Education Features
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Service learning
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Ch 3: 106-108
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B. Planning Instruction
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1. Techniques for planning instruction, including addressing curriculum goals, selecting content topics, incorporating learning theory, subject matter, curriculum development, and student development and interests
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Chapter 12
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Behavioral objectives: affective, cognitive, psychomotor, speech/language
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Ch 12: 410-414
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Learner objectives and outcomes
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Ch 16: 570-571
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Antibias curriculum
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Ch 5: 160-162, 174-176
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2. Techniques for creating effective bridges between curriculum goals and students' experiences
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Modeling
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Ch 7: 244-245 Ch 10: 338, 354-355; Ch 11: 383-384
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Independent practice, including homework
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Ch 12; 420-421
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Activating students' prior knowledge
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Ch 12: 424-425
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Encouraging exploration and problem solving
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Ch 11: 385-386
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C. Assessment Strategies
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Chapters 15 and 16
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1. Types of assessments
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Chapters 15 and 16
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2. Characteristics of assessments
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Chapters 15 and 16
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3. Scoring assessments
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Chapters 15 and 16
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4. Uses of assessments
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Chapters 15 and 16
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5. Understanding of measurement theory and assessment-related issues
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Chapters 15 and 16
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6. Interpreting and communicating results of assessments
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Chapters 15 and 16
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III. COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES
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A. Basic, effective verbal and nonverbal communication techniques
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Chapter 14: 507-512
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B. Effect of cultural and gender differences on communications in the classroom
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Chapter 2: 54-56; Chapter 5: 169-170
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C. Types of communications and interactions that can stimulate discussion in different ways for particular purposes
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Chapter 10
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Probing for learner understanding
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Ch 12: 418-419
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Helping students articulate their ideas and thinking processes
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Ch 12: 418-419
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Promoting risk taking and problem solving
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Ch 9: 321-324
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Facilitating factual recall
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Ch 8: 278-280
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Encouraging convergent and divergent thinking
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Ch 9: 315-317
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Stimulating curiosity
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Ch 9: 319-321
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Helping students to question
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Ch 10: 356
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Promoting a caring community
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Ch 3: 106-108
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IV. PROFESSION & COMMUNITY
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A. The Reflective Practitioner
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1. Types of resources available for professional development and learning
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2. Ability to read, understand, and apply articles and books about current research, views, ideas, and debates regarding best teaching practices
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Chapter 1: 15-22
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3. Ongoing personal reflection on teaching and learning practices as a basis for making professional decisions
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B. The Larger Community
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1. Role of the school as a resources to the larger community
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2. Factors in the students' environment outside of school (family circumstances, community environments, health and economic conditions) that may influence students' life and learning
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Chapter 3: 76-85, 85-88; Chapter 5: 147-150
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3. Develop and utilize active partnerships among teachers, parents/guardians and leaders in the community to support educational process
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Chapter 5; 147-150; Chapter 6: 208-212
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4. Major laws related to students' rights and teacher responsibilities
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Chapter 6: 205-208
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Appropriate education for students with special needs
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Ch 6: 205-208
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Topics covered are based on those listed in ETS' The Principles of Learning and Teaching Tests at a Glance, located at ftp://ftp.ets.org/pub/tandl/0522.pdf. Listed in this matrix are only PRAXIS II™ PLT topics, as presented at ftp://ftp.ets.org/pub/tandl/0522.pdf, that are covered in Educational Psychology. Students should reference to the ETS Web site and publications for the most accurate and comprehensive information.
