Nation of Nations 3/e Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, and Stoff
	Online Learning Center

THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE

The heated party battles of the 1790s deeply divided the leaders of the Revolution and caused Americans to fear for the survival of the Republic. In 1801 Thomas Jefferson became the first leader of an opposing party to become president. Jefferson had come to power by opposing Hamilton's and the Federalist party's domestic and foreign policies, and he entered office determined to reverse the policies of the previous decade and preserve an agrarian empire of liberty. Yet once in office he quickly discovered that governing the nation posed quite different challenges than leading an opposition party. Jefferson and his successors confronted many of the same problems that had been central to the politics of the previous decade: the government's role in the economy, the West, and American rights and independence.

OVERVIEW

The chapter opens with Margaret Bayard Smith's account of the early days of Washington, in order to show how isolated and insignificant the new capital was in Jefferson's time, and how far it was from the grandiose dreams the Federalists had held of the city. A supporter of the new president, Smith witnessed Jefferson's inauguration, which she recognized was a milestone in the Republic's history, for it marked the first peaceful transfer of power to another political party.

Jefferson in Power

The first section examines Jefferson's political philosophy. A complex individual, Jefferson combined a fondness for making seemingly radical pronouncements with a large dose of political realism. Jefferson had a strong faith in the people and believed in limited government. Convinced that agriculture nurtured the values necessary to preserve republicanism, he wanted to keep commerce and urbanization distinctly subordinate in the American economy.

Jefferson found, however, that he confronted much different problems in power than in opposition. His agrarian principles led him to push actively for the United States' geographic expansion, but on economic questions he increasingly compromised. In particular, he failed to dismantle Hamilton's economic program, which had been so crucial in the original formation of the Republican party. Jefferson's radical rhetoric contrasted sharply with his more pragmatic actions.

In another crucial development, judicial review--the right of the Supreme Court to interpret the constitution--became established. This was the work of Chief Justice John Marshall, a staunch Federalist appointed by John Adams at the end of his term. The Court, led by Marshall, asserted its right to rule whether any laws passed by Congress and state legislatures were unconstitutional, as well as the right to review decisions on constitutional matters by state courts. Of particular significance was the case of Marbury v. Madison (1803), in which Marshall first laid out the principle of judicial review. Eager to bring all branches of government under their party's control, Republicans attempted to impeach several notoriously partisan Federalist judges, but Congress balked at this action, thereby preserving the independence of the judiciary.

Jefferson and Western Expansion

Jefferson viewed western expansion as a blessing. He believed that it would preserve his republic of liberty by keeping agriculture and the values of the semi-subsistence economy dominant. When France suddenly offered to sell the entire Louisiana region to the United States, Jefferson leapt at the chance to double the size of the country, even though he believed that the federal government lacked the power under the Constitution to acquire territory. Once again, as with his economic policies, practical politics prevailed over ideological purity. Jefferson dispatched an expedition under the leadership of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the new territory, find a route to the Pacific, and strengthen American claims to Oregon.

Whites and Indians on the Frontier

Whites pouring across the Appalachian Mountains transformed the physical and cultural environment of the Ohio River Valley. The transition from frontier to commercial farming led to the rapid elimination of forests which dramatically changed existing plant and animal life, altered the incidence of diseases like malaria, and created a new set of problems related to soil erosion, flooding, and the silting of navigable streams. At the same time, a series of revivals altered frontier religious life. These revivals marked the beginning of the Second Great Awakening and were characterized by strong displays of emotion. The camp meetings offered social outlets for isolated pioneer families and offered an emotional release from the hard life on the frontier, while the revivalists preached a message of hope and the ability of individuals to gain salvation.

As white settlement increased, tensions between whites and Indians steadily increased in the Ohio Valley. White encroachment on Indian lands and trade with whites led to cultural disorder among the northwestern tribes. In this situation, some Indian leaders, such as Black Hoof, urged adoption of white culture. Most of the tribes in the region, however, rallied to a religious movement promoted by the Shawnee leader Tenskwatawa, who was known as the Prophet, much as frontier families turned to the revivalism of camp meetings. The Prophet sought to revitalize Indian cultures by limiting contact with whites, rejecting white goods, and preserving tribal lands. His movement, however, proved unable to prevent further land cessions. As the Prophet's prestige declined, his brother Tecumseh assumed leadership of the western tribes. Tecumseh advocated combining the western and southern tribes in a political and military alliance to protect their lands and way of life.

The Second War for American Independence

Increasingly foreign affairs dominated American politics. When war resumed between Britain and France in 1805, neither power was willing to respect the United States' rights as a neutral nation, and began to raid American shipping on the high seas and impress American sailors. American grievances were stronger against Britain, which had the more powerful navy. Reluctant to resort to force, Jefferson tried to use peaceful coercion by imposing an embargo on American trade with both countries. Some areas, especially New England, openly flouted the law, and eventually the Republican party had to abandon this policy.

James Madison, Jefferson's successor, came under mounting pressure from younger nationalistic Republicans, known as the War Hawks. The War Hawks were indignant over British interference with American shipping and meddling with the western Indians. When renewed efforts at peaceful coercion and negotiation failed, the United States finally declared war on Britain in order to preserve American rights and uphold national independence.

Americans proved woefully ill-prepared for war. Efforts to invade Canada failed dismally, the British occupied Washington and burned a number of government buildings, and only Andrew Jackson's victory at New Orleans redeemed American pride. Meanwhile, Tecumseh allied his followers with the British, seeing such an alliance as the western tribes' best chance to safeguard their lands. His death in battle ended his pan-Indian movement. A Federalist stronghold, New England refused to support the war, and the region's opposition culminated in the Hartford Convention of 1814, which rejected calls for disunion but proposed several constitutional amendments to reduce the South's political influence.

Despite the country's many military failures, the war produced several long-term consequences. It broke the power of Tecumseh's movement, opening the way for white settlement of the Northwest. It destroyed the Federalist party, which was hurt by its opposition to the war. And it led to a surge of American nationalism.

America Turns Inward

This postwar nationalism could be seen in the foreign policy of President James Monroe. The Transcontinental Treaty established the principle of American expansion to the Pacific, while the Monroe Doctrine proclaimed the New World's independence from Europe. American relations with Britain improved dramatically after 1815, as the two nations reached agreement on a number of long-standing differences. Britain's recognition of American sovereignty ended the threat of foreign interference in American affairs, bringing to a close the quest for independence from British control and interference that had begun with the Revolution.

Copyright ©1998 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
McGraw-Hill Higher Education is one of the many fine businesses of The McGraw-Hill Companies.
For further information about this site contact mhhe_webmaster@mcgraw-hill.com.