Nation of Nations 3/e Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, and Stoff
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THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE

The development of a national market after 1815 transformed the American economy and society. But a series of fundamental political changes also followed in the wake of the market revolution, changes that are often referred to as the rise of democracy. Democracy had not been valued particularly highly by the Revolutionary generation. To be sure, the United States in 1789 had a widespread suffrage by European standards. But politics in the early Republic still exhibited a strong elitist strain. Leadership remained in the hands of economic and social elites, appeals to the masses were restrained, popular participation, though higher than before, was limited, and politics played only a minor role in most people's lives. All of this changed in the Jacksonian period, as the earlier, more restrained style of politics gave way to the exuberant spirit of democracy.

OVERVIEW

The chapter opens with an account of Franklin Plummer, a Mississippi politician whose public career mirrored the new features of democractic politics. Born without the advantages of society, Plummer rose to power by portraying his opponents, including the hapless Powhatan Ellis, as aristocratic snobs who were indifferent to ordinary folk. A brilliant if unscrupulous campaigner, Plummer knew how to cater to popular tastes and portray himself as one of the people. His rise and eventual fall (when he began to act like an aristocrat himself) illustrated how profoundly American politics had changed from the world of Hamilton and Jefferson.

Equality and Opportunity

Expanded economic opportunity challenged the concept of equality, because it allowed some citizens the chance to become much richer than others. Thus this generation had to confront in its political affairs the fundamental tension that existed between those two basic American values: opportunity and equality. The democratic party system sought to preserve both equality and opportunity. It did so by defining equality to mean equality of opportunity, not condition, and safeguarding opportunity through government power.

The New Political Culture of Democracy

The new emphasis on democracy arose in response to the Panic of 1819. It was symbolized in the person of Andrew Jackson. A rough product of the southern frontier, Jackson lacked the usual background and training of presidential candidates, but his strong showing in the 1824 election, when he finished first in the popular vote, established his popularity.

Democracy manifested the popular belief in equality and opportunity. The Anti-Masonic movement, which began in New York in 1826 and spread to a number of other states, demonstrated a fear of any special privilege that might subvert equality. The Anti-Masons eventually joined the National Republicans, led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay, in the new Whig party. Jackson's supporters took the name Democrats.

The hard times produced by the Panic of 1819 also brought forth a clamor for government policies to provide relief. Hard times also soon led to the demand for a more open and responsive political system. For the first time, politics seemed relevant to many people's lives, and as a result popular participation in elections soared. The new political culture of democracy included the use of conventions to make nominations, the championing of "the people" against "aristocracy," the adoption of white manhood suffrage, the acceptance of political parties as essential for the working of the constitutional system. With campaign hoopla given prominence, politics became mass entertainment, involving men, women, and children, although voting remained solely a privilege of males (and in most states of white males).

Jackson's Rise to Power

Personally cold and stiff, John Quincy Adams did not fit into this democratic system and failed to generate any popular enthusiasm. In 1828 Jackson defeated Adams for the presidency. Much more comfortable with these democratic changes, Jackson rose to power by portraying himself as a representative of the people, sensitive to their interests. Indian removal, nullification, and banking were the three major problems Jackson confronted as president. In dealing with each, he left his distinctive mark on American politics.

Democracy and Race

Democracy strengthened racism in American society, and African-Americans were largely and Indians were entirely excluded from the new democratic system. As a result, the position and rights of both groups seriously deteriorated in this period. Indians east of the Mississippi were dispossessed of their lands and forced to migrate to new lands across the Mississippi. Even southern tribes such as the Cherokee that had adopted white ways could not prevent removal. Most black Americans remained in slavery, but even those who were free were subject to harsh discrimination and led lives of hardship and exclusion. Democracy and racism were linked, in part because racism offered whites a refuge from the uncertainties of living in a market-oriented, supposedly egalitarian society.

The Nullification Crisis

The rise of democracy also involved the concentration of power in the federal government. This was seen most clearly in the nullification crisis, when South Carolina, economically depressed and fearful about the future of slavery, endorsed Calhoun's theory of nullification. This crisis pitted Andrew Jackson, determined to enforce federal authority and the tariff, against the state of South Carolina. Calhoun argued that states, through popular conventions, could nullify federal laws or secede from the Union. Jackson countered that the Union was perpetual and nullification was illegal. In the end a compromise, hammered out by Clay and Calhoun, gradually lowered the tariff and ended the crisis.

The Bank War

Jackson also moved to destroy the Second Bank of the United States. He feared the great power wielded by the bank, which was controlled by private investors, over state banks and the national economy. When the bank's president, Nicholas Biddle, refused to compromise, Jackson vetoed the bill rechartering the bank. He then crippled the bank further by refusing to deposit federal funds (as was required by law) in the bank. The national bank went out of business in 1836, without a national banking system to replace it.

By the time he left office, Jackson greatly strengthened the office of the presidency in the American political system. He used the veto power to control Congress, insisted he was the people's champion, and converted his re-election campaign into a referendum on his policies.

Van Buren and Depression

Martin Van Buren, Jackson's hand-picked successor, took office just as the nation entered a severe depression. Most of Van Buren's term was devoted to economic questions, which he dealt with ineffectually. Blaming the Democrats for the hard times and exploiting the new democratic politics, the Whigs gained national power in 1840 for the first time.

The Jacksonian Party System

In the new system of parties that had developed, Democrats feared the commercialization of American society and wanted government to guard against monopolies and not interfere with individuals' moral beliefs. Whigs, on the other hand, were more comfortable with the mechanisms of the market, and advocated an active government to promote economic growth. They defended the need for banks and paper money in the new commercial economy, and insisted that the morals of society be regulated. Whigs were stronger among the business class, but both parties drew support from workers and farmers. Attitudes toward the market, rather than wealth, distinguished Whigs from Democrats. Yet Democratic efforts to escape the consequences of the market, while preserving its benefits and wealth, were doomed. There was no rolling back the market--or democracy.

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