Computers

CPU

The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer and its speed determines how fast the computer can process information. The two most important features to notice about the CPU are the type of processor, such as the Pentium processor, and its clock speed. The clock speed is measured in megahertz (MHz). A computer listed as a “166 MHz Pentium” indicates a 586 running at 166 MHz. These two features determine, in large part, both the speed and the cost of a computer.

RAM

Random access memory (RAM) functions as a computer’s short-term memory, or working storage space. RAM is measured in megabytes (MB, millions of bytes) and is usually expandable. Modern software requires quite a bit of RAM to operate, especially if you want to use more than one software application at a time. An “insufficient memory” message probably means your computer is running out of RAM and you’ll need to close some applications to continue. The amount of RAM on new computers is rapidly expanding, and most sold as of this writing have 16 or 32 MB. If you are thinking of buying an older used computer, consider upgrading its RAM to expand its capabilities.

Hard Disk Drive

The permanent long-term storage area on a computer is the hard disk drive. This is where most of your software applications and documents live. The capacity of modern hard drives is measured in gigabytes (GB, trillions of bytes). Software these days takes up enormous space on hard drives, and if you plan to work with video clips or sound files, you will need an especially large hard disk. You can conserve hard disk space by storing some applications or files on floppy diskettes or tapes, or by compressing files, but many people find this inconvenient. If you are buying a new computer, you probably need at least 1 GB of hard disk storage.

Floppy Drive and CD-ROM Drive

Most computers sold now have a floppy drive for 3 1/2 inch diskettes. If you anticipate using files stored on the older 5 1/4 inch diskettes, you can have that drive added to the system. The CD-ROM drive allows you to access data stored on CD-ROMs, which can store the data equivalent of 450 3 1/2 inch diskettes. Since CD-ROMs are read-only, you can’t store your own data on them; you should buy a computer with both floppy and CD- ROM drives.

Modems

A modem is a piece of equipment that changes the information that a computer works with into the kind of information that can be passed over the telephone lines. It is what allows your computer to "talk" to other computers around the world. It can be an external box or an internal card that is placed in the hard drive. Most new computers now come with built-in modems.

To use your modem, you will need a telephone line. You can use your regular telephone line which will cause a busy signal when you are online, or you can get a "dedicated line,”a separate phone line just for Internet access. Universities often have banks of modems accessible through the same number so when you call the university your call will be directed to the next available modem.

Modems come in different speeds. The speed of a modem determines how quickly you can download or access information from the Internet. As of this writing, the most widely used speed is 33.6; however, modems are continually getting faster.

See also Computer Hardware Guides

Hooking Up to the Internet

Most colleges and universities provide Internet access to their students and faculty at an attractive cost, and if you have access to this you should probably use it. If you need to hook up a computer to the Internet on your own, you must go through an Internet Service Provider (ISP). ISPs are companies that run the computers that enable you to get onto the Net; these computers are called servers. It works like this: when you log on to the Net your modem dials your ISP. When the modem is connected to the ISP, it actually connects to their modem on their computer (the computer at the ISP is called the server). The best- known ISPs are national ones like America Online and Compuserve. But there are many smaller ISPs out there as well.

There are a few considerations to keep in mind in choosing among the many ISPs:

Electronic Mail (E-mail)

E-mail is a way of transmitting messages across a phone line to a specified other person's computer. To send or receive e-mail you must have a program called a mail browser (some common ones are Eudora and Microsoft Mail) and an e-mail account. When you send an e-mail to someone, you type in their e-mail address in the space provided. E-mail addresses consist of the individual user's name or identification, the @ symbol, and the name of their server and domain: username@servername.domainname.

After writing your message in the "body" of the e-mail, you can send it. The message is transmitted across phone lines to the recipient server which "sorts" the mail and sends it to the individual's e-mail address.

E-mail is generally somewhat informal and not very lengthy. E-mail can be used for everything from sending out memos, keeping up with friends and relatives, telecommuting, and exchanging documents and files.

Here are a few things to keep in mind about using e-mail:

World Wide Web (WWW)

Since 1992, when the World Wide Web was first launched, it has exploded into mainstream culture. For many people, the Internet has become synonymous with the Web. The Web is a gold mine of information for psychology students and faculty, and more is being added every day. As technology becomes more sophisticated, Web sites are starting to feature animation, video, and sound.

Browsers

To get to the World Wide Web you have to have a computer program called a Web browser. Some of the more well-known and popular Web browsers are Netscape and Microsoft Internet Explorer. You can purchase a browser from a computer store, get one from your ISP, or download one from the Web itself. To download the latest version of Netscape for academic use, go to Netscape’s Home Page (http://www.netscape.com). Once you are logged on to the Internet ,you simply click to open the browser and you are ready to surf the Net.

Web Addresses

You can analyze a Web site address to figure out who it belongs to and what they do.

Surfing the Web

A person or organization's Web site usually consists of many pages. The first page you come to when you type in a URL is called the home page. This page usually contains a menu for the entire site and lets you know something about the site's creators and purpose. The home page contains links to other pages within that site, and often to other sites of interest. With most browsers you can go back to a previous link by clicking a button that says "Go Back.” You will not get "stuck" someplace you don't want to be, so don't be shy about exploring links.

Web sites can be developed by any person or organization on any topic. The amount of information available on the Web today is staggering and continues to grow. You can utilize the Web for general research, as an educational tool, as a shopping mall, to find a long lost friend, get a new job, or answer most any question you might have; you are limited only by your imagination.

Search Engines

Now that you have a basic idea of the workings of the WWW, how do you go about finding Web sites that may interest you? A good starting point is to use one of the popular directories on the Web called search engines. A search engine allows you to type in keywords on the topic that you are interested in. It then retrieves any sites that contain that word.

Some of the larger and more popular search engines are:

To use a search engine, type in one of the addresses listed above. When the home page for that site comes up you will notice a "search" box in which you can type a key word or phrase. The search engine will then bring up as a list of sites all the information that it has available on that topic. Sometimes you will need to narrow your search; for example, if you type "psychology," you may have hundreds or thousands of site listings returned. On the other hand, if you are too specific, you may not have any sites returned as a result of your inquiry. This does not necessarily mean that no sites exist.

Bookmarks

Once you find a Web site you will want to return to in the future, you can "bookmark" it. To bookmark a site, go to that site. After it has finished loading, choose "bookmark" from your menu bar and your browser will instantly record the address to that site in your bookmark folder. Anytime you want to return to that site, you simply open the bookmark folder and click on the title of that Web site. Different ISPs offer different methods for bookmarking sites. America Online, for example, uses a system called “favorite places” that works similarly.

Tips for Using the World Wide Web

FTP, Gopher, and Telnet

FTP stands for file transfer protocol. FTP sites are software repositories from which you can download shareware software, demos, images, text, sound, and anything else that can be transmitted via the Internet. You can access FTP sites from the Web the same way you would enter any URL (FTP addresses begin with ftp://). Most FTP sites support anonymous FTP, which means that anyone can log on to the site with the user name “anonymous,” enter their own e-mail address as the password, then download whatever files interest them. If you download materials from FTP be sure to scan them with antiviral software to be sure they are clean, or you could end up infecting your hard drive with a nasty computer virus.

Before the World Wide Web, gopher was a popular way of storing information on the Internet. Gopher was developed at the University of Minnesota and is named for their mascot. Gopher sites are being retired as their contents are moved onto the Web, but many valuable ones still exist containing psychology-related information. Again, you can enter the URL for a gopher site (usually beginning gopher://) the same way you would for a Web site. You’ll see a text-only menu that you can navigate just like a Web site.

Telnet enables you to log on to another host computer to run one of its computers or to access information from it. You can telnet to other hosts from most Web browsers if you have telnet software configured to work with your browser.

Mailing Lists

Mailing lists (or listservs) are electronic mailing discussion groups that take place through e-mail. They are groups of people who "get together" online to discuss a specific topic. For psychology students, mailing lists offer a way to participate in lively discussions, stay up on current research, or find out answers to burning questions. There are mailing lists on nearly every topic imaginable. Here's how it works:

Newsgroups/Usenet

Newsgroups, like mailing lists, are a way of discussing topics over the Internet with other people who share the same interests. However, newsgroups take place on an entirely different "network" called Usenet.

Usenet is composed of thousands of discussion areas called newsgroups. Individual comments that people make to one another on a newsgroup are called articles. You "post an article" when you want to make a comment. The lines of discussion within a newsgroup are called threads. To read the discussions on any newsgroup you must have a software program called a newsreader.

Generally, your ISP will provide you with a newsreader program as part of the software package. When you open the newsreader it should download any new newsgroups that have been added. You can look through the entire list and choose which newsgroups interest you. When you find one of interest, you just open it up and begin reading the articles.

Newsgroup addresses are called hierarchies. Listed below are some of the standard hierarchies with an example of each. There are many other categories, some of which are from foreign countries.

alt - groups generally alternative in nature (e.g., alt.education.distance, alt.alien.visitors) bionet - groups discussing biology and biological sciences (e.g., bionet.general, bionet.immunology)
comp - groups discussing computer or computer science issues (e.g., comp.infosystems) misc - groups that don't fit into other categories (e.g., misc.fitness, misc.jobs) news - groups about Usenet itself (e.g., news.groups)
rec - groups discussing hobbies, sports, music, and art (e.g., rec.food, rec.humor) sci - groups discussing subjects related to science and scientific research (e.g., sci.med.nursing, sci.psychology)
soc - groups discussing social issues including politics, social programs, etc. (e.g., soc.culture, soc.college)
talk - public debating forums on controversial issues (e.g., talk.abortion, talk.religion)

Before you make a posting to a newsgroup, you may want to lurk for awhile, that is, read the discussion without contributing your own posting. Lurking will give you a sense of the kinds of postings that are appropriate for that newsgroup and what the newsgroup culture is like.

Newsgroups may be frequented by people from all over the world, including some experts in the field. They can be a great source of current information and of community. For example, a person suffering from a relatively rare disorder may not know anyone else with the same problems and concerns on campus or in town, but he or she can frequent a newsgroup specifically for people with that disorder to learn about other peoples' experiences, the latest treatments, and just to commiserate. But, as always, be aware that not everything posted to a newsgroup is necessarily true; you must be a critical thinker.

Netiquette

Netiquette is simply the etiquette of the Internet. Because no one owns or polices the Internet, it is especially important that all users take responsibility for keeping communications civilized. Remember that the written communications of the Internet cannot convey meanings by voice inflection or body language, and it's easy to be misinterpreted.

Here are some good netiquette principles to keep in mind:

Flaming

Emoticons

Emoticons are a fun way to express your feelings in electronic communication. They are a series of keystrokes and symbols that make a sideways picture. Emoticons can communicate to your reader that you are joking, disgusted, flirting, or sad--emotions that are otherwise hard to express in typewritten communication. Here are some examples:

:-) this is the most common emoticon, known as a "smiley"
;-) here is the smiley, winking
:-p here is the smiley, sticking out it's tongue
(:^) here is a bald smiley
:-( this is a sad smiley

How is the Internet Useful to Psychology Students?

Online resources are quickly becoming very valuable for psychology students, faculty, and professionals. When you first start to explore the world of the Internet, it can seem overwhelming. What are the practical uses of the Internet for psychology students?

-Educational resources. Most colleges and universities now have Internet hosts and World Wide Web sites. Faculty often post course information and syllabi online, and some courses are even offered entirely online. Some instructors require students to do tutorials or other projects on the Internet, or to do research using the Internet. In addition, you may be able to get general information about your school, its policies, programs, graduation requirements, and faculty on the Net.

-Research. The Internet is a repository for many journals, books, archives, and other sources of scholarly information. In addition, subscribing to a mailing list or posting to a newsgroup in an area of interest can yield new sources of information that would be hard to get elsewhere. See the section on Doing Psychology Research with the Internet for more information.

-Graduate school and career information. The Internet is a great resource for those planning a career in psychology. Most graduate schools have Web sites that list their programs, entrance requirements, faculty profiles, and other information of interest to prospective students. Once you get that degree, you can consult online listings of jobs available in many areas of psychology. See Careers in Psychology for more information.

-Self-help and support. The Internet is a great way to provide information and support to people who might not otherwise have access to it. There are dozens of newsgroups and mailing lists that offer support and advice for people dealing with all kinds of mental health-related issues, from Alzheimer’s caregivers to people with eating disorders to psychology graduate students.

-Professional contacts and networking. E-mail is a good way to keep in touch with friends and professors, and to make contact with people who can give you information you need. Mailing lists and newsgroups on scholarly or professional topics can give you an idea of some of the people working in psychology and their work and concerns. You may even be able to start a discussion with a faraway person on a topic of mutual interest.

-Goods and services. As many people have discovered, the Web can serve as an electronic shopping mall. For students of psychology it can be a place to order books, software, or journals of interest, sign up for classes or conferences, or even get online therapy (although that is not recommended).

Doing Psychology Research with the Internet

The Internet is a great source of information for psychology students doing research. There is no one "right" way to do research with the Internet, though it is important to stay focused; it's easy to lose hours of study time surfing the Net. Remember that you probably won’t be able to do all your research on the Net; you will probably still need to go to the library and do some research the old-fashioned way.

PsycINFO

PsycINFO is the department at the American Psychological Association responsible for a very important tool for psychology researchers. It contains hundreds of thousands of entries on books and journals related to psychology published since the 1960s. More than 4000 entries are added each month. Now PsycINFO is available to members (including student members) of the APA on the Web. In addition, many schools make PsychINFO available to students and faculty in their libraries. Each PsycINFO reference includes a bibliographic citation and publishing information, a summary or abstract of the content, and standard keyword indexing. You can search PsycINFO by specifically referencing any of a number of fields, such as publication year, journal name, keyword, author, or any string of text that appears anywhere in the record.

Online Libraries

There are dozens of libraries whose contents are searchable online. If your school’s library is among them, you can look up and make notes on books and journals you will need for a paper or project without going to the library. How do you find out if your library is online? You can call the library, or go to a good search engine, and enter the name of your college or university and the word “library.” Sometimes you may need to enter a student ID number or other password to gain access to the online library.

Even if your school’s library is not online, you may find it useful to search another online library. This will give you an idea of what has been published in your area of interest, and give you ideas of resources you may want to seek beyond your library through interlibrary loan.

Doing General Searches

Next, pick a search engine. Some popular ones are listed here. For your first few searches you may want to try them all, but in time you may come to prefer one or two, and bookmark them for future use. There is no one best search engine.

Search Engines

Enter your keywords into the search engine and hit “enter.” If you get too many hits, see if you can narrow down your keyword criteria. If you get few or no hits, broaden your keywords or try another search engine. Then skim through your search results and visit the sites that seem most promising.

Newsgroups and Mailing Lists

See also Psychology Newsgroups; Psychology Listservs

Internet Citations

It is good form to cite Internet sources as you would cite any research source. Citation styles are still evolving, but the fourth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association suggests the following form:

Wainwright, C. William (No date). Stress and Working Parents [Online]. Available: http://www.wainwright.edu [1997, July 14]

See also The Web Extension to the APA Style

Thinking Critically about Psychology Information on the Internet

When you have access to the Internet, you have an incredible amount of information at your fingertips. But remember that the Internet is not regulated, and anyone can post information there--accurate or inaccurate, helpful or misleading. The following tips will help you make sure the information you're getting is legitimate.

-Consider the source. Web pages maintained by government agencies, reputable schools, professional organizations, and major organizations like the American Psychological Association can generally be trusted. Many other groups and individuals post accurate information as well. It is up to you to use your skepticism and common sense about any information you find on the Net, and always to be aware of the source of your information.

-Know where you are. Even if you start out in a trustworthy site, the click of a button can catapult you into a completely different one. Learn to read your Web address (URL) so you know when you've left one site and entered another.

-Watch for red flags. The same common sense you'd use to evaluate any information applies doubly on the Internet. There are quacks on the Internet who prey on people who are looking for solutions to difficult personal psychological problems. Be especially careful about sending money to anyone with promises that sound too good to be true.

-Get a second opinion. To get more perspective on a piece of information, pick a key phrase or name and run it through a search engine to find other discussions of the topic. Post a query in a newsgroup and, of course, ask around at your school