Psychology, 5/e   Wortman, Loftus & Weaver
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CONCEPT I: Psychology as a Science

Scientific theories are testable formulations that attempt to fit all the known relevant facts concerning phenomena into a logical explanation. They attempt to address why questions. Psychologists believe there are patterns underlying behavior and that by examining these patterns through research, they can better explain and predict human behavior. However, it is important to recognize that science cannot prove the correctness of a theory; that all theories are not scientific; and that theories do not have to be correct to be useful. Scientific knowledge grows through the addition of more detailed and more accurate information and the adjustment of theories accordingly. Sometimes findings of research in psychology contradict common sense, indicating that our intuition about human nature is not always correct.

Like any science, psychology is an ongoing field of study, with new findings leading to new possibilities. Oftentimes, an initial study will generate the interest and response of other researchers, who may criticize how the original study was conducted. In turn, some might offer alternative interpretations of the initial results, or conduct further research to help clarify the original research question or answer new questions about the same topic. Scientific knowledge grows through this relatively slow, incremental process.

CONCEPT II: The Roots of Psychology

Psychology is a relatively young science, with roots in philosophy. Not surprisingly, philosophers have also been quite interested in addressing why questions. However, unlike psychologists, philosophers have attempted to address these types of questions based on argument and debate, rather than through scientific means.

With the publication of The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in 1859, the new science of psychology was born. Three of Darwin’s key ideas were the notions of heredity, variability, and natural selection. In particular, his ideas about natural selection or "survival of the fittest" addressed the question of why certain traits appear to outlast others. This became the foundation of what is now known as evolutionary theory. By placing humans no higher than other animals, Darwin set the foundations for the scientific study of human behaviors.

CONCEPT III: A Short History of Psychology

Critical of earlier approaches to studying the mind, Wilhelm Wundt set out to create a "new domain of science." Wundt was interested in identifying the most basic elements of human consciousness or the mind. This became known as structuralism. In 1890, William James at Harvard published an influential text titled Principles of Psychology which criticized the structuralist approach. James believed that consciousness was not a series of component parts, but rather was a continuous whole. James’s view was consistent with Darwin’s focus on function and evolution, and led to a view called functionalism, which stressed the functions that our mental processes serve.

Five perspectives have come to dominate psychology in the twentieth century: the psychoanalytic, the behaviorist, the humanistic, the cognitive, and the neuroscience perspectives. Although all are very different, they are not necessarily opposed to each other, but rather take different perspectives in understanding the same events.

Sigmund Freud emphasized the role of unconscious (or unobservable) conflicts in outward behavior. By using his psychoanalytic approach in the study of patients, he attempted to extract clues to the nature of the patient’s unconscious conflict and to help the patient consciously recognize the psychological roots of a problem. He also emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping adult personality.

Behaviorists argue that psychology should study only observable, measurable events, and they focus on how stimuli produce responses. Ivan Pavlov documented how an association could be learned between a previously neutral stimulus and a reflex by pairing these events in time. John B. Watson first delineated the behaviorist position in the U.S. and declared that an organism’s responses could be controlled by controlling environmental stimuli. Edward Thorndike discovered the principles of trial-and-error learning, which emphasize the importance of reinforcements. B. F. Skinner refined and popularized these behaviorist views and expanded them to apply to society as a whole.

Humanistic psychology opposes the strict determinism present in both behaviorism and psychoanalysis; it emphasizes the positive side of human nature. This approach sees humans as naturally striving for self-fulfillment, or self-actualization, and psychological growth and also sees humans as free to be whatever they choose to be. Carl Rogers, for example, believed that people can be helped to move toward self-actualization when a therapist provides them empathy, understanding, and support.

Cognitive psychology, which began to take a major hold in American psychology in the 1950s, builds on the importance of mental processes, or cognitions. Several important concepts have been incorporated into the cognitive view. Schemas are the results of active interpretation of experience. The useful analogy between the human mind and computers has promoted the development of the human information-processing (HIP) model of cognition, which has become a major interest in cognitive psychology. As such, it has generated research aimed at developing computer systems to simulate human thought.

The neuroscience perspective focuses on the idea that understanding how the brain works will allow us to explain human behavior and mental processes. Neuroscientists are interested in both the structure and activity of the brain.

This book takes the view that different theoretical perspectives explain behavior at different levels, drawing insights from all five of these perspectives.

CONCEPT IV: Contemporary Fields of Specialization

Psychology is made up of many highly specialized subfields. Experimental psychology focuses on basic areas of behavior that are shared by humans and other animals, such as sensation, perception, learning, memory, problem-solving, communication, emotion, and motivation.

Neuroscientists also study basic processes, but focus on the neural aspects of these processes. Like experimental psychologists, they often use animals in their research. Another aspect of neuroscience, psychopharmacology, is the study of the link between drugs and behavior.

Personality psychology focuses on individual differences in behavior. Social psychologists emphasize the role of environmental factors, especially the presence and actions of others, on behavior. Developmental psychologists study how people change as they move through the life cycle. They may also evaluate those who are not developing normally.

Industrial and organizational psychologists focus on the relationship between individuals and their work. They are concerned with all aspects of behavior in the workplace. Most industrial and organizational psychologists work in business and industry. Educational psychologists are concerned with all aspects of the learning process, whereas school psychologists work in the applied area of solving specific or individual problems in the school situation.

Clinical psychologists specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and have earned a Ph.D. or a Psy.D. and completed special training. Psychiatrists first earn an M.D. and then serve a residency in psychiatry. They sometimes work with psychologists and can prescribe drugs and other medical treatment for therapy. Some psychiatrists become psychoanalysts and practice therapy similar to that developed by Freud. Counseling psychologists typically help people who are experiencing mild problems in social or emotional adjustment.

Health psychologists study the relationship between mental state and physical health. Some health psychologists believe psychological factors are implicated in all diseases.

CONCEPT V: Psychology’s Value to You

The American Psychological Association (APA) is the principal professional organization for American psychologists. Psychology is a popular vocation in the United States. About 10% (3,000) of the 30,000 doctoral degrees awarded each year in science and engineering are in psychology. About 8,000 students annually earn psychology master’s degrees as well.

Coursework in psychology can contribute to job success in many fields. Even if you do not plan a career in psychology, you can expect to learn more about yourself and others by studying psychological findings and principles. Furthermore, studying psychology will give you a method of evaluating contemporary and widely publicized findings and research conclusions and will make you a sophisticated consumer of information affecting your life.

CONCEPT VI: Four Recurring Themes in Psychology

Four recurring themes can be found throughout this textbook. These themes are as follows: The best predictor of future behavior is past behavior (Theme 1). We learn about normal functioning by studying what is abnormal (Theme 2). Many of our behaviors are often influenced by activity outside of our conscious awareness (Theme 3). Finally, cognition and thought are more dynamic, active processes, best considered reconstructive, not reproductive (Theme 4).

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