eardrum A thin membrane between the outer and inner ear that responds to changes in air pressure by vibrating, thus amplifying sound. 4
eclectic therapists Psychotherapists who believe that an openness to different approaches allows them to tailor a treatment program to the needs of each patient. 16
ecological validity The issue concerning research methods suggesting that conditions in a laboratory experiment may not always mirror those in real-life settings. 2
educational psychologists Researchers who are concerned with all aspects of the learning process. 1
effector cells Cells specialized for contracting muscles and for stimulating glandular secretions. 3
efferent pathways Nerve pathways leading away from the central nervous system. 3
effortful encoding A deliberate attempt to store something into memory. 7
ego According to Freud, the part of the psyche that mediates transactions between the external environment and the demands of the id and the superego. The ego operates on the reality principle. 13
ego psychologists Psychologists who consider themselves Freudians but who elaborate on Freud’s theory, emphasizing ego functions. 13
egocentric Among young children, the belief that everyone views the world from the same perspective as the child. 9
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) Commonly called “shock treatment,” it has proved extremely effective in the treatment of cases of severe depression that fail to respond to drug therapy. 16
electroencephalogram (EEG) Tracings of brain-wave patterns made by an electroencephalograph. 5
emotion A reaction pattern that includes physiological changes, expressive behaviors, and states of feeling, arising involuntarily in response to a challenging situation. 11
empathy The experience of another’s emotional condition as one’s own. 18
empiricist view A theory of perceptual development, linked to the indirect perspective, which holds that perceptual processes are learned from sensory experience. 4
encoding The process through which sensory information is converted into a form that can be remembered. 7
encoding specificity A phenomenon whereby memory is best when the conditions during retrieval match the conditions during encoding. 7
endorphins Neurotransmitters found throughout the brain, but especially in the limbic system. They modulate pain and pleasure, and regulate eating and drinking. 3
environment The external surroundings in which a person lives. 2
episodic memory The recollection of events an individual has personally experienced. 7
equilibration According to Piaget, the mental process by which development is achieved by attempting to reach a balance between assimilation and accommodation. 9
erectile failure A sexual dysfunction that occurs in men characterized by the inability to achieve or maintain an erection. 11
escape learning A cause-and-effect relationship whereby learning is achieved through escaping the stimulus. It can be established through negative reinforcement. 6
evolutionary psychology A field of psychology that focuses on the genetic bases of a wide range of animal and human social behaviors—including aggression, cooperation, competition, sex roles, and altruism—especially toward those who share one’s genes. 11
evolutionary/biological approach A perspective on personality that focuses on behavior patterns that may result from physiology, genetic inheritance, and adaptive pressures that may have existed in our evolutionary past. 13
excitatory potentials Inputs that cause the inside of the cell to become less negative. 3
excitement phase The first stage of Masters and Johnson’s sexual response cycle, characterized by increased breathing, heart rate, and muscular tension in both men and women. 11
exemplars Multiple examples of concepts we might be exposed to. Whereas prototypes are abstract entities, exemplars are more directly related to actual experiences. 8
experimental group In an experiment, those subjects experiencing the experimental condition. 2
experimental psychology The approach to psychology in which psychologists use experimentation to gather data on the basic processes shared by many animal species, such as sensation, perception, learning, memory, problem solving, communication, emotion, and motivation. 1
experiments Research methods used to identify (and test) cause-and-effect relationships. 2
explicit memory Memory that refers to conscious awareness. 7
expressed emotion The amount of criticism and hostility directed toward schizophrenics by other people, especially from within families. 15
extinction The slow weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response. 6