sample A selected segment of the available data that is representative of the whole. 2
scalloping In a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule, a scalloped pattern on a graph made by a cumulative record. It indicates a high rate of response just before reinforcement and a pause in responding immediately after. 6
scanning hypothesis Proposed by William Dement, the theory that rapid eye movements accompanying dreams may be due to the dreamer “watching” the activity in the dream. 5
schedules of reinforcement The way in which rewards are given for appropriate behavior. 6
schemes Mental representations of objects and events against which incoming data can be compared and interpreted. 1, 4, 7, 13
schizophrenia A severe mental disorder characterized by disturbances in thought, emotion, perception, and behavior. 15
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) A verbal and mathematical test developed by the College Entrance Examination Board and designed to measure “aptitude for college studies.” 14
school psychologists Practitioners who apply psychological knowledge in the areas of learning difficulties and behavior problems among elementary and secondary school students. 1
scientific theories Attempts to go beyond a single case or experiment, and provide a larger explanation that applies to many situations. 1
seasonal affective disorder (SAD) A mood disorder related to changes in the seasons. It occurs in response to a relative lack of sunlight, most often in the winter. 15
secondary appraisal The second level of Lazarus’s cognitive appraisal where we evaluate our options and resources, or how we might respond to the problem. 11
secondary drives Drives learned through association with the reduction of primary drives. 11
secondary erectile failure A condition in which the man has problems maintaining an erection in some situations. 11
secondary orgasmic dysfunction A condition in which the woman may sometimes experience orgasm, but not with her primary sexual partner or during intercourse. 11
secondary reinforcer In operant conditioning experiments, a stimulus that does not satisfy an inherent biological need but has acquired reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers. 6
secondary sexual characteristics The physical features of gender identity not directly involved with reproduction, such as the development of pubic hair, changes in voice, etc. 10
secure attachment The type of bond between infant and caregiver characterized by the expectation that the caregiver will be available and responsive. 10
selective attention The brain’s ability to screen out some information entering a particular sensory channel and focus primarily on only one aspect of information entering the same channel. 7
self-actualization According to Carl Rogers, the striving for the fulfillment of one’s own capabilities and potential. 1, 13
self-efficacy The feeling people have of being able to deal effectively with a situation. 13
self-fulfilling prophecy The phenomenon whereby investigators’ expectations influence their findings. 2, 17
self-help group A group of people who share a particular problem and meet to discuss it among themselves, without the active involvement of a professional therapist. 16
self-instructional training Donald Meichenbaum’s cognitive-behavior treatment in which he teaches clients how to think rational and positive thoughts in stressful situations, instead of plunging into old, self-defeating internal monologues. 16
self-perception theory Daryl Bem’s theory that people infer their attitudes by observing their own behavior and the circumstances surrounding it, much as they infer the attitudes of others. 17
self-reports A method of measuring variables by recording and tallying the responses of subjects about their behavior, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes. 14
self-schemas Organized sets of knowledge about the self that guide the perception and interpretation of information in social situations. 13, 17
self-serving bias The tendency of an individual to take credit for successes and find situational excuses for failures. 17
semantic The aspects of language that have to do with comprehension and expression of meaning. 8
semantic memory Mental representation of objects, states, and qualities in a person’s world. 7
sensation The process in which the stimulation of receptor cells in various parts of the body sends nerve impulses to the brain. 4
sensorimotor period The first stage of Piaget’s theory of intellectual growth (from birth to about two years), during which an infant learns through perceiving sensations and physical actions. 9
sensory adaptation The reduced ability of a sensory system to provide information after prolonged, constant stimulation. 4
sensory memory The momentary lingering of sensory information after a stimulus has been removed. 7
sensory threshold The minimum stimulus needed to produce a detectable sensation. 4
septum One of three interrelated structures of the limbic system; the others are the hippocampus and amygdala. 3
serotonin A monoamine (neurotransmitter) found in the thalamus and brain stem. It is suspected to have an important influence on arousal-related activities such as sleep. 3
setpoint The level of fat that the brain considers normal. When body fat goes significantly above setpoint, loss of appetite sets in; when body fat falls significantly below it, hunger takes over. 12
sexism Prejudice directed toward one sex, almost always women. 17
sexual dysfunction Any persistent or recurring problem that prevents a person from engaging in sexual relations or from reaching orgasm during sex. 11
sexual response cycle The sequence of four physiological stages of human sexual response identified by Masters and Johnson. 11
shallow processing (maintenance rehearsal) The mental activity that is inattentive and rote, concerned only with superficial features of a stimulus without consideration of the meaning of the stimulus; this information can be maintained only in short-term memory. 7
shaping A method developed by B. F. Skinner in which an animal is systematically reinforced for displaying closer and closer approximations of the desired response. 6
shared environmental influences The effects of family environment, which are common to all members of the household. 2
short-term memory The conscious awareness of what you are actively thinking about at any particular moment. 7
similarity A gestalt principle of organization proposing that objects will be perceived as groups if they are similar in shape, color, texture, and the like. 4
simultaneous conditioning Presenting the conditioned stimulus at the same time as the unconditioned stimulus. 6
single-blind technique A procedure in which the experimenter knows who is in the experimental group and who is in the control group but the subjects do not. 2
Skinner box A small compartment that provides a controlled setting in which an animal may be trained to perform a specific behavior for a reward. 6
sleep apnea A biological factor in insomnia; when muscles of the throat relax and shut off air passages, repeated shortages of oxygen cause the sleeper to awake and gasp for air. 5
social cognition The process of making sense of other people and ourselves. 17
social cognitive approach A perspective on personality that is based on the principles of learning and information processing. It focuses on the different ways in which individuals interpret events and on how these interpretations shape their styles of coping with the problems of everyday life. 13
social comparison theory One of the earliest and most enduring theories of happiness, it holds that to determine whether you are satisfied with your life, you look at the people around you and compare your life to theirs. 11
social development The ways in which a person’s interactions and relationships with others change as that person grows older. 10
social facilitation The tendency for people’s performance to improve in the presence of others. 18
social learning perspective A view of social and personality development that emphasizes the role of the external environment in shaping behavior. 10
social learning theory The belief of cognitive psychologists that a great deal of learning is accomplished by observation of other people’s behavior, often in the absence of reinforcement. 6
social loafing The tendency for people to slack off when they are part of a group. 18
social psychologists Researchers who study how environmental factors, especially the presence of others, influence individual perception, belief, motivation, and behavior. 1
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) A table developed by Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe consisting of forty-three common life events, ranking their stress value according to the degree of adjustment required. 12
social smile One aspect of infant behavior, triggered by the sight of the human face, by which the infant enhances its prospects for survival by attracting the attention of the caregiver. 10
social stereotype A set of beliefs about the way members of a particular group think and act. 17
socialization Learning the expectations and values of one’s society.
sociobiology The systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior. 11, 18
sociocultural perspective The view that the roots of mental disturbance often lie in social ills such as poverty, poor nutrition, inadequate housing, crime, and discrimination. 15
somatic Refers to those senses responsible for sensations of the skin, detecting the movement in the body (especially the limbs), and awareness of body and limb position. 4
somatic nervous system The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the skeletal muscles. 3
somatoform disorder The presence of one or more symptoms of a physical dysfunction for which there is no identifiable organic cause. 15
split-halves A procedure for randomly dividing a test into two halves, and comparing subjects and scores on both halves to measure the test’s reliability. 14
spontaneous recovery The temporary reappearance of an extinguished response when an organism is returned to the original learning situation. 6
standard deviation A measure of variability showing average extent to which all the numbers in a particular set vary from the mean. 2
standardization The process of developing uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test. 14
Stanford-Binet test The Stanford University revision of Binet’s test. It is currently employed, usually with children, to judge intelligence by verbal and performance tests grouped according to the subjects’ age levels. 14
stapes One of a set of three tiny, interconnected bones in the middle ear that transmit sound from the eardrum to the cochlea. 4
stereotype A preconceived idea of what members of a particular group are like. 17
stimulants Drugs that produce physiological and mental arousal by stimulating the central nervous system. 5
stimulus Any form of energy to which an organism is capable of responding. 4
stimulus control A behavioral therapy technique that focuses on rearranging the environmentthe cues that are often associated with problem behaviors. The association between the environment and the desired response is achieved by eliminating all other options. 6, 16
stimulus discrimination The process of learning to make a particular response only to a particular stimulus. 6
stimulus generalization The performance of a learned response in the presence of a similar stimulus. 6
storage The way in which information is kept in memory for later use. 7
strategies Specific techniques or procedures people use to work on their life tasks. 13
stress That which a person appraises as harmful, threatening, or challenging. 12
Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) A test designed to measure a subject’s pattern of interests in order to aid in occupational choices. 14
structural family therapy A family-systems therapy developed by Minuchin that involves role playing to teach the families of schizophrenics new and different ways to communicate. 16
structuralism Developed by Wilhelm Wundt, the study of how the basic units of human consciousness form the organization, or structure, of the mind. 1
subgoal analysis A heuristic by which a problem is analyzed into a set of manageable smaller problems. 8
sublimation According to Freud, a defense mechanism whereby forbidden impulses are redirected toward the pursuit of socially desirable goals.
subliminal perception The brain’s ability to register a stimulus presented so briefly or weakly that it cannot be consciously perceived. 4
substance-related disorders Psychological disturbances resulting from abuse of drugs or alcohol. 15
sucking reflex The reflex that helps the baby to begin nursing. When an object is placed in the baby’s mouth, the baby automatically begins to suck. 9
superego According to Freud, that part of the personality that represents the ideals and moral standards of society, as conveyed to the child by his or her parents. 10, 13
superstitious behavior Behavior that is strengthened or weakened because by chance it happens to precede reinforcement or punishment. 6
surveys Attempts to estimate the opinions, characteristics, or behaviors of a particular population by investigation of a representative sample. 2
sympathetic nervous system The division of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body’s resources in an emergency or stress situation. 3
synapse The area surrounding a synaptic cleft, including the tip of the axon on one side and the receiving cell’s membrane on the other. 3
synaptic cleft The tiny gap that separates neuronal axons from adjacent cells. 3
synaptic transmission The passing of information from one neuron to another. 3
syntactic The rules of a language that determine the allowable combinations of words, phrases, and sentences. 8
systematic desensitization A technique in behavioral therapy for reducing anxiety or removing phobias by pairing muscle relaxation with the presentation of potentially threatening objects or situations in hierarchical order, from least to most feared. 6, 16