CONCEPT I: The Physiology of Emotion

Strong emotion is associated with the autonomic nervous system. This system works quite automatically and regulates the body's internal environment. It is composed of the sympathetic division, which generally functions in emergency situations, and the parasympathetic division, which dominates during periods of relaxation.

If you were placed in an emotion-arousing situation, your sympathetic nervous system would be activated and you could expect to experience physical changes such as these:

a. Blood flows away from the internal organs to carry nutrients and oxygen to the skeletal muscles.
b. The pancreas secretes glucagon, which stimulates the liver to release sugar (energy) into the bloodstream, and the adrenals secrete epinephrine.
c. Breathing becomes deeper and faster, and the bronchioles expand.
d. Heart rate increases.
e. Eye pupils dilate, and visual sensitivity increases.
f. Sweat glands increase their activity.
g. Hair on the body stands up.

Although these preparations can increase the amount of work your body can do, human capacity is limited.

Changes in emotional state can be detected by a machine called a polygraph. The polygraph can include such measures as the EDA (electrodermal activity which measures how sweaty the skin is), the EKG (electrocardiogram which measures heart rate), the pneumograph (which measures respiration), blood pressure, the EMG (electromyogram which measures muscle movement), and the EEG (electroencephalogram which records brain activity). The polygraph reveals the stress a subject is likely to experience when he or she is lying. In fact, the device is often called a lie detector. Polygraphs can no longer be used in private industry to screen employees, but sometimes are used in criminal cases, even though polygraph evidence may not be allowed in court. The federal government uses polygraphs to test employees for honesty and to check their integrity in handling classified material.

Polygraphs can produce error in two ways: causing us to believe a lie, at which they are quite good, and causing us to not believe the truth, at which they are not so good.

Emotions are coordinated in the brain primarily by the hypothalamus and the limbic system. Stimulation of the hypothalamus has been shown to elicit an emotional response; lesions in the amygdala (part of the limbic system) inhibit emotionality. Damage to the limbic system can also produce violent behavior. The cerebral cortex is involved in emotions: the left frontal cortex is associated with positive emotions, whereas the right hemisphere is linked to more negative emotions. Studies also show that depressed people show more right hemisphere activity than do nondepressed people.

The field of psychoneuroimmunology has found significant links between the brain, the emotions, and the immune system. For example, one study showed lower antibodies present on days when subjects felt their mood was negative. Also, neurotransmitters are linked to emotion: for example, low levels of norepinephrine produce depression. Research has shown that people with spinal cord injuries experience less intense emotion, indicating that feedback from the autonomic system probably heightens the emotional experience.

CONCEPT II: The Behavioral Expression of Emotion

The influence of environment on nonverbal communication is shown by individual and cultural differences. Different cultures score differently on the PONS (Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity), which measures ability to decode nonverbal messages. The highest scores are obtained by people from cultures similar to that of the United States. And women score higher than men on the PONS. In addition, adult women are more expressive than men, although this gender difference is absent in children. When people are asked to make facial expressions that mimic an emotion without knowing the significance of the expression, they experience the physiological effects associated with the emotion they mimicked.

Nonverbal channels of communication are apparently more difficult to control than verbal channels. This is why people tend to trust them more than verbal messages as indicators of true feeling.

CONCEPT III: Emotion as Subjective States

Researchers in the field of emotion face two main challenges: creating specific moods in their subjects and measuring subjective feelings. Moods can be manipulated by having subjects read and think about mood-related statements, by giving them false positive or negative feedback, and by embarrassing or rewarding them. Moods are measured by asking subjects how they feel, by asking them to comment on good or bad events, by having them free-associate to emotion-laden words, or by having them work at a monotonous task. When researchers manipulate subjects' moods, they must take great care in debriefing subjects.

Emotional traits are relatively stable and consistent ways that people differ from each other emotionally. For example, the trait of happiness is related to the frequency of positive emotions, rather than the intensity of any particular emotional response. Affect intensity refers to the trait related to how strongly people experience their emotions, both positive and negative. Happiness can generally be described as a positive, enduring state that includes satisfaction with life, pleasures, and accomplishments.

Several theories have been proposed to explain what causes happiness. The social comparison theory says that if our situation is better than that of others around us, we will be happy. This theory has been supported by research which indicates that people who compare themselves to the more fortunate are less happy than those who compare themselves to the less fortunate. However, this theory cannot explain why some advantaged people are unhappy or some disadvantaged people happy.

Adaptation theory argues that people become accustomed to their circumstances, and it is the deviations from this average that produce unhappiness or happiness. In one sense, this theory would suggest that one must continually improve one's lot to be happy. Adaptation theory implies that external circumstances (such as money or power) actually have little to do with happiness. On the other hand, unpleasant emotions endure as long as the conditions producing them continue.

Still other researchers believe that adaptation theory should be supplemented with a trait theory in which happiness is viewed as an outcome of being high in extraverted traits and low in neurotic characteristics. This theory is supported by research showing extroverts are happier than introverts. One problem with trait theory is that traits associated with happiness are not necessarily the opposite of those associated with unhappiness.

Life circumstances tend to be associated with happiness. One of the most consistent factors is a satisfying marriage and family life. Interestingly, money does not seem to contribute much to happiness, at least not over the long run.

The following eight steps are likely to contribute to happiness:

1. Spend more time with your loved ones.
2. Seek challenging, meaningful work.
3. Be helpful to others.
4. Make time for the activities you enjoy.
5. Keep fit.
6. Be organized, but flexible.
7. Think positive.
8. Keep things in perspective.

CONCEPT IV: Theories of Emotion

The James-Lange theory of emotion proposes that emotion-arousing situations give rise to specific physiological changes. These changes prompt the subjective feeling of emotion. The particular emotion we feel (hate, fear, joy) is determined by the specific pattern of physiological change.

Walter Cannon published a reaction to the James-Lange theory that was critical on several grounds. First, contrary to James-Lange predictions, researchers were unable to find physiological differences in the various emotions. Second, Cannon believed that we feel emotions more quickly than the underlying physiological changes could take place. Third, injection of a drug that produced physiological arousal (such as epinephrine) was not sufficient to produce emotions. The Cannon-Bard theory states that sensory information goes to the thalamus, where it is transmitted simultaneously to the cerebral cortex (where the experience of emotion is processed) and to the autonomic nervous system (which triggers the physiological responses).

The facial feedback hypothesis holds that facial expressions play a key role in the experience of emotion. Research supporting this view shows that when subjects move their facial muscles to positions similar to those used in various emotional displays, subjects tend to experience the associated emotion. A variety of explanations have been advanced to account for this finding.

The cognitive arousal interpretation of emotion draws on both the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories. It suggests that we experience physiological arousal and then search for environmental cues that help us appropriately label the emotion.

Schachter and Singer conducted an experiment to test their contention that people label physiological arousal in such a way that the emotion they feel is consistent with their situation. In this experiment, subjects were injected with epinephrine and placed in one of four conditions: informed (they were warned of the side effects produced by epinephrine), misinformed (they were warned of side effects unrelated to those produced by epinephrine), ignorant (they were told the injection would have no side effects), and placebo (they received an injection of saline solution). All subjects then waited with a happy or an angry confederate. Those subjects in the misinformed and ignorant groups were more likely to feel aroused in this situation. To label the arousal, a person looks to environmental cues that can indicate what emotion is appropriate in the particular situation. Thus Schachter's theory—that physiological arousal signals to a person that an explanation for that arousal is needed—received support.

Another cognitive-based theory is the cognitive appraisal theory, and states that our emotions are the result of our appraisal of the objective situation in which we find ourselves. In primary appraisal we evaluate whether the situation is relevant to our personal well being; in secondary appraisal we evaluate how we should react. Cognitive appraisal theorists believe we evaluate situations according to a limited number of specific dimensions, and our appraisals give rise to distinct patterns of physiological arousal and specific facial expressions. Zajonc has criticized this view, saying that feelings do not necessarily require thinking. A possible resolution is that simple emotions may require little thought, but more complex emotions require a certain amount of high-level cognition.

CONCEPT V: Emotional Reactions to Crisis

Research data, however, suggest that these assumptions may be unwarranted. First, individuals vary greatly in their reactions to crisis. Second, theories that propose a series of coping stages tend to be based on weak data; recent research does not validate such a notion. Indeed, the stage concept may actually be harmful if professionals expect a patient coping with crisis to progress in ways not consistent with the person's actual progress. Finally, people often take a long time to recover from crisis, and some never fully recover. Again, this causes problems when health care professionals expect someone to progress at a particular rate. Some research suggests that people may be helped to cope with trauma by talking or writing about it.