A

absolute threshold: the minimum amount of stimulation that an individual can detect through a given sense. 153

accommodation: 1. the cognitive process that revises existing schemas to incorporate new information. 2. the process by which the thickness of the lens in the eye changes to focus images of objects located at different distances from the eye. 119, 157

achievement motive: the desire for mastery, excellence, and accomplishment. 397

achievement test: a test that measures knowledge of a particular subject. 346

acronym: a mnemonic device that involves forming a term from the first letters of a series of words that are to be recalled. 295

action potential: a series of changes in the electrical charge across the axonal membrane that occurs after the axon has reached its firing threshold. 70

activation-synthesis theory: the theory that dreams are the by-products of the mind's attempt to make sense of the spontaneous changes in physiological activity generated by the pons during REM sleep. 210

actor-observer bias: the tendency of observers to make dispositional attributions for the behavior of others but to make situational attributions for their own behavior. 596

acupuncture: a pain-relieving technique that relies on the insertion of fine needles into various sites on the body. 184

adaptation-level theory: the theory that happiness depends on comparing one's present circumstances with one's past circumstances. 420

adolescence: the transition period lasting from the onset of puberty to the beginning of adulthood. 130

adrenal glands: endocrine glands that secrete hormones that regulate the excretion of minerals and the body's response to stress. 78

adulthood: the period beginning when the individual assumes responsibility for her or his own life. 134

affective-commitment: attitudinal attachment to the organization by which one is employed. 667

afterimage: a visual image that persists after the removal of a visual stimulus. 163

age regression: a hypnotic state in which the individual apparently behaves as she or he did as a child. 216

aggression: behavior aimed at causing harm to another person. 626

agoraphobia: a fear of being in public, usually because the person fears the embarrassment of a panic attack. 488

algorithm: a problem-solving rule or procedure that, when followed step by step, assures that a correct solution will be found. 315

all-or-none law: the principle that once a neuron reaches its firing threshold, a neural impulse travels at full strength along the entire length of its axon. 71

altruism: the helping of others without the expectation of a reward. 622

Alzheimer's disease: a brain disorder characterized by difficulty in forming new memories and by general mental deterioration. 74

amphetamines: stimulants used to maintain alertness and wakefulness. 222

amygdala: a limbic system structure that evaluates information from the immediate environment, contributing to feelings of fear, anger, or relief. 83

anal stage: in Freud's theory, the stage of personality development, between ages 1 and 3, during which the child gains pleasure from defecation and faces a conflict over toilet training. 446

analysis of dreams: in psychoanalysis, the process by which the therapist interprets the symbolic, manifest content of dreams to reveal their true, latent content to the client. 522

analysis of free associations: in psychoanalysis, the process by which the therapist interprets the underlying meaning of the client's uncensored reports of anything that comes to mind. 521

analysis of resistances: in psychoanalysis, the process by which the therapist interprets client behaviors that interfere with therapeutic progress toward uncovering unconscious conflicts. 522

analysis of transference: in psychoanalysis, the process by which the therapist interprets the feelings expressed by the client toward the therapist as being indicative of the feelings typically expressed by the client toward important people in his or her personal life. 522

analysis of variance: a statistical technique used to determine whether the difference between two or more sets of scores is statistically significant. 653

analytic introspection: a research method in which highly trained subjects report the contents of their conscious mental experiences. 9

anorexia nervosa: an eating disorder marked by self-starvation. 384

antianxiety drugs: psychoactive drugs, commonly known as minor tranquilizers, that are used to treat anxiety disorders. 541

antidepressant drugs: psychoactive drugs that are used to treat major depression. 541

antimania drugs: psychoactive drugs, most notably lithium carbonate, that are used to treat a bipolar disorder. 542

antipsychotic drugs: psychoactive drugs, commonly known as major tranquilizers, that are used to treat schizophrenia. 542

antisocial personality disorder: a personality disorder marked by impulsive, manipulative, often criminal behavior, without any feelings of guilt in the perpetrator. 507

anxiety disorder: a psychological disorder marked by persistent anxiety that disrupts everyday functioning. 485

applied research: research aimed at improving the quality of life and solving practical problems. 20

approach-approach conflict: a conflict in which one must choose between two desirable courses of action. 560

approach-avoidance conflict: a conflict in which one is faced by a course of action that has both desirable and undesirable qualities. 560

aptitude test: a test designed to predict a person's potential to benefit from instruction in a particular academic or vocational setting. 347

archetypes: in Jung's theory, inherited images that are passed down from our prehistoric ancestors and that reveal themselves as universal symbols in art, dreams, and religion. 449

archival research: the systematic examination of collections of letters, manuscripts, tape recordings, video recordings, or other records. 45

arousal motive: the motive to maintain an optimal level of physiological activation. 394

artificial intelligence (AI): the field that integrates computer science and cognitive psychology in studying information processing through the design of computer programs that appear to exhibit intelligence. 325

assertiveness training: a form of social-skills training that teaches clients to express their feelings directly, instead of passively or aggressively. 535

assimilation: the cognitive process that interprets new information in light of existing schemas. 119

association areas: regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate information from the primary cortical areas and other brain areas. 84

atherosclerosis: the narrowing of arteries caused by the accumulation of cholesterol deposits. 565

attention: the process by which the individual focuses awareness on certain contents of consciousness while ignoring others. 197

attitude: an evaluation, containing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components, of an idea, event, object, or person. 604

audition: the sense of hearing. 174

auditory cortex: the area of the temporal lobes that processes sounds. 86, 175

auditory nerve: the nerve that conducts impulses from the cochlea to the brain. 175

authoritarian personality: a personality type marked by the tendency to obey superiors while dominating subordinates, to favor one's own group while being prejudiced against other groups, and to be unwilling to admit one's own faults while projecting them onto members of other groups. 611

authoritative parenting: an effective style of parenting, in which the parent is warm and loving, yet sets well-defined limits that he or she enforces in an appropriate manner. 123

automatic processing: information processing that requires less conscious awareness and mental effort, and that does not interfere with the performance of other ongoing activities. 226

autonomic nervous system: the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls automatic, involuntary physiological processes. 67

autonomy versus shame and doubt: Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by gaining a degree of independence from one's parents. 122

availability heuristic: in decision making, the tendency to estimate the probability of an event by how easily relevant instances of it come to mind. 324

aversion therapy: a form of behavior therapy that inhibits maladaptive behavior by pairing a stimulus that normally elicits a maladaptive response with an unpleasant stimulus. 525

avoidance-avoidance conflict: a conflict in which one must choose between two undesirable courses of action. 560

avoidance learning: learning to prevent the occurrence of an aversive stimulus by giving an appropriate response to a warning stimulus. 251

axon: the relatively long fiber of the neuron that conducts neural impulses to glands, muscles, or other neurons. 69

axonal conduction: the transmission of a neural impulse along the length of an axon. 70

B

barbiturates: depressants used to induce sleep or anesthesia. 221

basal metabolic rate: the rate at which the body burns calories just to keep itself alive. 381

basic research: research aimed at finding answers to questions out of theoretical interest or intellectual curiosity. 20

basilar membrane: a membrane running the length of the cochlea that contains the auditory receptor (hair) cells. 175

behavioral contingencies: relationships between behaviors and their consequences, such as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment. 246

behavioral genetics: the study of the relationship between heredity and behavior. 107

behavioral neuroscience: the field that studies the relationship between neurological and psychological processes. 21, 66

behavioral perspective: the psychological viewpoint, descended from behaviorism, that stresses the importance of studying the effects of learning and environmental factors on overt behavior. 15

behavioral preparedness: the degree to which members of a species are innately prepared to learn particular behaviors. 259

behaviorism: the early school of psychology that rejected the study of mental processes in favor of the study of overt behavior. 11

behavior modification: the application of the principles of operant conditioning to change maladaptive behaviors. 526

behavior therapy: the therapeutic application of the principles of learning to change maladaptive behaviors. 522

binocular cues: depth perception cues that require input from the two eyes. 167

biofeedback: a form of operant conditioning that enables an individual either to learn to control a normally involuntary physiological process or to gain better control of a normally voluntary one when provided with visual or auditory information indicating the state of that process. 264

biological rhythms: repeating cycles of physiological changes. 198

biopsychological perspective: the psychological viewpoint that stresses the relationship of physiological factors to behavior and mental processes. 18

bipolar disorder: a mood disorder marked by periods of mania alternating with longer periods of major depression. 497

blocking: the process by which a neutral stimulus paired with a conditioned stimulus that already elicits a conditioned response fails to become a conditioned stimulus. 260

brain: the structure of the central nervous system that is located in the skull and plays important roles in sensation, movement, and information processing. 67

brightness constancy: the perceptual process that makes an object maintain a particular level of brightness despite changes in the amount of light reflected from it. 170

Broca's area: the region of the frontal lobe responsible for the production of speech. 88

bulimia nervosa: an eating disorder marked by binging and purging. 385

bystander intervention: the act of helping someone who is in immediate need of aid. 623

C

caffeine: a stimulant used to increase mental alertness. 222

cannabis sativa: a hallucinogen derived from the hemp plant and ingested in the form of marijuana or hashish. 224

Cannon-Bard theory: the theory that an emotion is produced when an event or object is perceived by the thalamus, which conveys this information simultaneously to the cerebral cortex and the skeletal muscles and autonomic nervous system. 424

case study: an in-depth study of an individual. 41

catatonic schizophrenia: a type of schizophrenia marked by unusual motor behavior, such as bizarre actions, extreme agitation, or immobile stupor. 503

catharsis: in psychoanalysis, the release of repressed emotional energy as a consequence of insight into the unconscious causes of one's psychological problems. 521

causal attribution: the cognitive process by which we infer the causes of both our own and other people's social behavior. 594

causation: an effect of one or more variables on another variable. 46

central nervous system: the division of the nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal cord. 67

central tendency error: the tendency to rate everyone in the middle. 662

cerebellum: a hindbrain structure that controls the timing of well-learned movements. 81

cerebral cortex: the outer covering of the forebrain. 84

cerebral hemispheres: the left and right halves of the cerebrum. 84

cerebral palsy: a movement disorder caused by brain damage and that is sometimes accompanied by mental retardation. 354

chaining: an operant conditioning procedure used to establish a desired sequence of behaviors by positively reinforcing each behavior in the sequence. 248

childhood: the period that extends from birth until the onset of

puberty 115

circadian rhythms: twenty-four-hour cycles of physiological changes, most notably the sleep-wake cycle. 198

clairvoyance: the alleged ability to perceive objects or events without any sensory contact with them. 188

classical conditioning: a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being associated with a stimulus that already elicits that response. 237

clinical psychology: the field that applies psychological principles to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders. 22

cocaine: a stimulant used to induce mental alertness and euphoria. 222

cochlea: the spiral, fluid-filled structure of the inner ear that contains the receptor cells for hearing. 175

coefficient of correlation: 1. a statistic that assesses the degree of association between two or more variables. 2. A number that represents the direction and strength of a correlation. 54, 649

cognitive appraisal: the subjective interpretation of the severity of a stressor. 570

cognitive-appraisal theory: the theory that one's emotion at a given time depends on one's interpretation of the situation one is in. 431

cognitive dissonance theory: Leon Festinger's theory that attitude change is motivated by the desire to relieve the unpleasant state of tension caused when one holds cognitions that are inconsistent with each other. 608

cognitive-evaluation theory: the theory that a person's intrinsic motivation will increase when a reward is perceived as a source of information but will decrease when a reward is perceived as an attempt to exert control. 401

cognitive perspective: the psychological viewpoint that favors the study of how the mind organizes perceptions, processes information, and interprets experiences. 17

cognitive psychology: the field of psychology that studies how the mind organizes perceptions, processes information, and interprets experiences. 310

cognitive therapy: a type of therapy, developed by Aaron Beck, that aims at eliminating exaggerated negative beliefs about oneself, the world, or the future. 530

cohort: a group of people of the same age. 111

cohort-sequential research: research that begins as a cross-sectional study of different cohorts and then follows the cohorts longitudinally. 112

collateral sprouting: the process by which branches from the axons of nearby healthy neurons grow into the pathways normally occupied by the axons of damaged neurons. 91

collective unconscious: in Jung's theory, the unconscious mind that is shared by all human beings and that contains archetypal images passed down from our prehistoric ancestors. 449

color blindness: the inability to distinguish between certain colors, most often red and green. 163

companionate love: love characterized by feelings of affection and commitment to a relationship with another person. 603

comparative psychology: the field that studies similarities and differences in the physiology, behaviors, and abilities of different species of animals, including human beings. 21

compliance: behaving in accordance with a request that is backed by little or no threat of punishment. 618

computed tomography (CT): a brain-scanning technique that relies on X rays to construct computer-generated images of the brain or body. 87

computer-assisted instruction: the use of computer programs to provide programmed instruction. 257

concept: a category of objects, events, qualities, or relations that share certain features. 311

concrete operational stage: the Piagetian stage, extending from 7 to 12 years of age, during which the child learns to reason logically about objects that are physically present. 120

conditioned response (CR): in classical conditioning, the learned response given to a particular conditioned stimulus. 237

conditioned stimulus (CS): in classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a particular conditioned response after being paired with a particular unconditioned stimulus that already elicits that response. 237

conditioned taste aversion: a taste aversion induced by pairing a taste with gastrointestinal distress. 242

conduction deafness: hearing loss usually caused by blockage of the auditory canal, damage to the eardrum, or deterioration of the ossicles of the middle ear. 177

cones receptor: cells of the retina that play an important role in daylight vision and color vision. 157

conflict: the emotional state induced when one is torn between two or more potential courses of action. 560

confluence model: the view that each child is born into an intellectual environment that is dependent on the intelligence levels of her or his parents and siblings, with the number of children and the interval between births affecting the intelligence of each successive child. 368

conformity: behaving in accordance with group expectations with little or no overt pressure to do so. 616

confounding variable: a variable whose unwanted effect on the dependent variable might be confused with that of the independent variable. 48

conscious mind: the level of consciousness that includes the mental experiences that we are aware of at a given moment. 229

consciousness: the awareness of one's own mental activity, including thoughts, feelings, and sensations. 196

consensus: the extent to which, in a given situation, other people behave in the same way as the person being observed. 595

conservation: the realization that changing the form of a substance does not change its amount. 120

consideration: the leadership characteristic of showing support, concern and respect for subordinates. 668

consistency: the extent to which a person behaves in the same way in a given situation on different occasions. 595

constructive alternativism: the process by which a person applies personal constructs to a given situation. 461

constructive recall: the distortion of memories by adding, dropping, or changing details to fit a schema. 284

context-dependent memory: the tendency for recall to be best when the environmental context present during the encoding of a memory is also present during attempts at retrieving it. 290

continuance commitment: the costs an employee perceives as being involved in leaving a job. 667

continuous schedule of reinforcement: a schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for each instance of a desired response. 249

control group: the subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the experimental condition of interest. 47

controlled processing: information processing that involves conscious awareness and mental effort, and that interferes with the performance of other ongoing activities. 226

conventional level: in Kohlberg's theory, the level of moral reasoning characterized by concern with upholding laws and conventional values and by favoring obedience to authority. 128

convergent thinking: the cognitive process that focuses on finding conventional solutions to problems. 321

conversion disorder: a somatoform disorder in which the person exhibits motor or sensory loss or the alteration of a physiological function without any apparent physical cause. 491

cornea: the round, transparent area in the front of the sclera that allows light to enter the eye. 156

corpus callosum: a thick bundle of axons that provides a means of communication between the cerebral hemispheres, which is severed in so-called split-brain surgery. 99

correlation: the degree of relationship between two or more variables. 46

correlational research: research that studies the degree of relationship between two or more variables. 46

correlational statistics: statistics that determine the relationship between two variables. 649

counseling psychology: the field that applies psychological principles to help individuals deal with problems of daily living, generally less severe ones than those treated by clinical psychologists. 22

counterconditioning: a behavior therapy technique that applies the principles of classical conditioning to replace unpleasant emotional responses to stimuli with more pleasant ones. 523

creativity: a form of problem solving that generates novel, socially valued solutions to problems. 319

critical period: a period in childhood when experience with language produces optimal language acquisition. 332

cross-cultural psychology: an approach that tries to determine the extent to which research findings about human psychology hold true across cultures. 19

cross-sectional research: a research design in which groups of subjects of different ages are compared at the same point in time. 111

crystallized intelligence: the form of intelligence that reflects knowledge acquired through schooling and in everyday life. 136, 360

cultural-familial retardation: mental retardation apparently caused by social or cultural deprivation. 354

cultural psychology: an approach that studies how cultural factors affect human behavior and mental experience. 19

D

dark adaptation: the process by which the eyes become more sensitive to light when under low illumination. 161

daydreaming: a state of consciousness that involves shifting attention from external stimuli to self-generated thoughts and images. 197

debriefing: a procedure, after the completion of a research study, that informs subjects of the purpose of the study and aims to remove any physical or psychological distress caused by participation. 58

decay theory: the theory that forgetting occurs because memories naturally fade over time. 286

decision making: a form of problem solving in which one tries to make the best choice from among alternative judgments or courses of action. 323

declarative memory: the long-term memory system that contains memories of facts. 279

deep structure: the underlying meaning of a statement. 329

defense mechanism: in Freud's theory, a process that distorts reality to prevent the individual from being overwhelmed by anxiety. 444

deindividuation: the process by which group members become less aware of themselves as individuals and less concerned about being socially evaluated. 630

deinstitutionalization: the movement toward treating people with psychological disorders in community settings instead of mental hospitals. 543

deja vu: the feeling that one has experienced a present experience sometime in the past. 188

dendrites: the branchlike structures of the neuron that receive neural impulses. 68

dependent variable: a variable showing the effect of the independent variable. 47

depressants: psychoactive drugs that inhibit activity in the central nervous system. 219

depth perception: the perception of the relative distance of objects. 167

descriptive research: research that involves the recording of behaviors that have been observed systematically. 40

descriptive statistics: statistics that summarize research data. 53, 645

determinism: the assumption that every event has physical, potentially measurable, causes. 34

developmental psychology: the field that studies physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes across the life span. 21, 106

diathesis-stress viewpoint: the assumption that psychological disorders are consequences of the interaction of a biological, inherited predisposition (diathesis) and exposure to stressful life experiences. 482

difference threshold: the minimum amount of change in stimulation that can be detected. 154

differential psychology: the field of psychology that studies individual differences in intellectual, personality, and physical characteristics. 8, 348

discriminative stimulus: in operant conditioning, a stimulus that indicates the likelihood that a particular response will be reinforced. 246

disorganized schizophrenia: a type of schizophrenia marked by severe personality deterioration and extremely bizarre behavior. 503

disparagement theory: the theory that humor is amusing when it makes one feel superior to other people. 421

displacement: the characteristic of language marked by the ability to refer to objects and events that are not present. 327

dissociation: a state in which the mind is split into two or more independent streams of consciousness. 215

dissociative disorder: a psychological disorder in which thoughts, feelings, and memories become separated from conscious awareness. 492

dissociative identity disorder: a dissociative disorder, more commonly known as multiple personality disorder, in which the person has two or more distinct personalities that alternate with one another. 493

distinctiveness: the extent to which a person behaves in the same way across different situations. 595

distributed practice: spreading out the memorization of information or the learning of a motor skill over several sessions. 293

divergent thinking: the cognitive process by which an individual freely considers a variety of potential solutions to artistic, literary, scientific, or practical problems. 321

door-in-the-face technique: increasing the likelihood that someone will comply with a request by first getting them to reject a larger one. 619

double-blind technique: a procedure that controls experimenter bias and subject bias by preventing experimenters and subjects from knowing which subjects have been assigned to particular conditions. 51

Down syndrome: a form of mental retardation, associated with certain physical deformities, that is caused by an extra, third chromosome on the 21st pair. 355

dream: a storylike sequence of visual images, usually occurring during REM sleep. 207

drive: a state of psychological tension induced by a need. 377

drive-reduction theory: the theory that behavior is motivated by the need to reduce drives such as sex or hunger. 377