E

echoic memory: auditory sensory memory, which lasts up to 4 or more seconds. (275)

educational psychology: the field that applies psychological principles to improving curriculum, teaching methods, and administrative procedures. (22)

EEOC: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (661)

ego: in Freud's theory, the part of the personality that helps the individual adapt to external reality by making compromises between the id, the superego, and the environment. (444)

egocentrism: the inability to perceive physical reality from the perspective of another person. (119)

elaboration: likelihood model a theory of persuasion that considers the extent to which messages take a central route or a peripheral route. (606)

elaborative rehearsal: actively organizing new information to make it more meaningful, and integrating it with information already stored in long-term memory. (278)

Electra complex: a term used by some psychoanalysts, but not by Freud, to refer to the Oedipus complex in females. (446)

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a biomedical therapy that uses brief electric currents to induce brain seizures in victims of major depression. (540)

electroencephalograph (EEG): a device used to record patterns of electrical activity produced by neuronal activity in the brain. (79)

embryonic stage: the prenatal period that lasts from the end of the second week through the eighth week. (113)

emotion: a motivated state marked by physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and mental experience. (410)

empiricism: the philosophical position that true knowledge comes through the senses. (6, 34)

encoding: the conversion of information into a form that can be stored in memory. (273)

encoding specificity: the principle that recall will be best when cues that were associated with the encoding of a memory are also present during attempts at retrieving it. (289)

encounter group: a derivative of humanistic group therapy in which group members learn to be themselves by openly expressing their true feelings to one another. (537)

endocrine system: glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (76)

endorphins: neurotransmitters that play a role in pleasure, pain relief, and other functions. (74)

engineering psychology: the field that applies psychological principles to the design of equipment and instruments. (22)

engram: a memory trace in the brain. (297)

environmental psychology: the field that applies psychological principles to help improve the physical environment, including the design of buildings and the reduction of noise. (22)

episodic memory: the subsystem of declarative memory that contains memories of personal experiences tied to particular times and places. (280)

equipotentiality: the ability of more than one area of the brain to control a given function. (91)

escape learning: learning to perform a behavior that terminates an aversive stimulus, as in negative reinforcement. (251)

ethology: the study of animal behavior in the natural environment. (41)

ethyl alcohol: a depressant found in beverages and commonly used to reduce social inhibitions. (219)

eugenics: the practice of encouraging supposedly superior people to reproduce, while preventing supposedly inferior people from reproducing. (364)

existential psychology: a branch of humanistic psychology that studies how individuals respond to the basic philosophical issues of life, such as death, meaning, freedom, and isolation. (17)

existential therapy: a type of humanistic therapy that helps the client overcome emotional or behavioral problems by dealing with major philosophical issues in life, including death, freedom, isolation, and meaning. (533)

expectancy: 1. in achievement situations, the perceived probability of success in a particular area. 2. in I/O psychology, the strength of the individual's beliefs about whether a particular outcome is attainable. (399, 664)

experimental group: the subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the experimental condition of interest. (47)

experimental method: research that manipulates one or more variables, while controlling other factors, to determine the effects on one or more other variables. (47)

experimental psychology: the field primarily concerned with laboratory research on basic psychological processes, including perception, learning, memory, thinking, language, motivation, and emotion. (20)

experimenter bias effect: the tendency of experimenters to let their expectancies alter the way they treat their subjects. (49)

expert system: a computer program that displays expertise in a specific domain of knowledge. (325)

explanatory style: the tendency to explain events optimistically or pessimistically. (571)

explicit memory: conscious recollection of general information or personal experiences. (280)

external validity: the extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to other people, animals, or settings. (51)

extinction: 1. in classical conditioning, the gradual disappearance of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus. 2. in operant conditioning, the gradual disappearance of a response that is no longer followed by a reinforcer. (240, 252)

extrasensory perception (ESP): the ability to perceive events without the use of sensory receptors. (187)

extravert: a person who is socially outgoing and prefers to pay attention to the external environment. (449)

extrinsic motivation: the desire to perform a behavior in order to obtain an external reward, such as praise, grades, or money. (400) eyewitness testimony: witnesses' recollections about events, most notably about criminal activity. (301)

F

facial-feedback theory: the theory that particular facial expressions induce particular emotional experiences. (428)

factor analysis: a statistical technique that determines the degree of correlation between performances on various tasks to determine the extent to which they reflect particular underlying characteristics, which are known as factors. (359)

family therapy: a form of group therapy that encourages the constructive expression of feelings and the establishment of rules that family members agree to follow. (537)

feature-detector theory: the view that we construct our perceptions from neurons of the brain that are sensitive to specific features of stimuli. (166)

feeling of control: the degree to which a person feels in control over life's stressors. (571)

fetal alcohol syndrome: a disorder, marked by physical defects and mental retardation, that can afflict the offspring of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy. (114)

fetal stage: the prenatal period that lasts from the end of the eighth week through birth. (113)

fight-or-flight response: a state of physiological arousal that enables us to meet sudden threats by either confronting them or running away from them. (410)

figure-ground perception: the distinguishing of an object (the figure) from its surroundings (the ground). (165)

fixation: in Freud's theory, the failure to mature beyond a particular stage of psychosexual development. (446)

fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement: a partial schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for the first desired response made after a set length of time. (250)

fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement: a partial schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement after a set number of desired responses. (249)

fixed-role therapy: a kind of therapy, derived from Kelly's personality theory, that encourages clients to adopt roles that promote new, more adaptive personal constructs. (462)

flashbulb memory: a vivid, long-lasting memory of a surprising, important, emotionally arousing event. (272)

flooding: an extinction procedure in which a phobic client is exposed to a stimulus that evokes intense anxiety. (526)

fluid intelligence: the form of intelligence that reflects reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing. (136, 360)

foot-in-the-door technique: increasing the likelihood that someone will comply with a request by first getting them to comply with a smaller one. (618)

forensic psychology: the field that applies psychological principles to improve the legal system, including the work of police and juries. (22)

forgetting: the failure to retrieve information from memory. (273) forgetting curve: a graph showing that forgetting is initially rapid and then slows. (286) formal operational stage: the Piagetian stage, beginning at about age 12, marked by the ability to use abstract reasoning and to solve problems by testing hypotheses. (131)

fovea: a small area at the center of the retina that contains only cones and provides the most acute vision. (158)

framing effect: in decision making, biases introduced into the decision-making process by presenting an issue or situation in a certain manner. (324)

frequency distribution: a list of the frequency of each score or group of scores in a set of scores. (642)

frequency histogram: a graph that displays the frequency of scores as bars. (643)

frequency polygon: a graph that displays the frequency of scores by connecting points representing them above each score. (643)

frequency theory: the theory of pitch perception that assumes that the basilar membrane vibrates as a whole in direct proportion to the frequency of the sound waves striking the eardrum. (176)

frontal lobe: a lobe of the cerebral cortex responsible for motor control and higher mental processes. (84)

frustration: the emotional state induced when one is blocked from reaching a goal. (559)

frustration-aggression hypothesis: the assumption that frustration causes aggression. (628)

functional fixedness: the inability to realize that a problem can be solved by using a familiar object in an unusual way. (318)

functionalism: the early school of psychology that studied how the conscious mind helps the individual adapt to the environment. (10)

fundamental attribution error: the bias to attribute other people's behavior to dispositional factors. (596)

G

gate-control theory: the theory that pain impulses can be blocked by the closing of a neuronal gate in the spinal cord. (184)

gender identity: a person's self- perceived sex. (391)

gender roles: the behaviors that are considered appropriate for females or males in a given culture. (125)

gender-schema theory: a theory of gender-role development that combines aspects of social learning theory and cognitive-developmental theory. (126)

general adaptation syndrome: as first identified by Hans Selye, the body's stress response, which includes the stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. (565)

generalized anxiety disorder: an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent state of anxiety that exists independently of any particular stressful situation. (485)

generativity: the characteristic of language marked by the ability to combine words in novel, meaningful ways. (327)

generativity versus stagnation: Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by becoming less self-absorbed and more concerned with the well-being of others. (139)

genital stage: in Freud's theory, the last stage of personality development, associated with puberty, during which the individual develops erotic attachments to others. (446)

genotype: an individual's genetic inheritance. (109)

germinal stage: the prenatal period that lasts from conception through the second week. (112)

Gestalt psychology: the early school of psychology that claimed that we perceive and think about wholes rather than simply about combinations of separate elements. (12)

Gestalt therapy: a type of humanistic therapy, developed by Fritz Perls, that encourages clients to become aware of their true feelings and to take responsibility for their own actions. (532)

glial cell: a kind of cell that provides a physical support structure for the neurons, supplies them with nutrition, removes neuronal metabolic waste materials, facilitates the transmission of messages by neurons, and helps regenerate damaged neurons in the peripheral nervous system. (68)

global competition: business competition among countries around the globe. (669)

goal setting: the establishment of a particular level of performance to achieve in the future. (399)

goal setting theory: the theory that performance is improved by setting specific goals. (665)

gonads: the male and female sex glands in the testes and the ovaries. (78, 386)

grammar: the set of rules that governs the proper use and combination of language symbols. (328)

group: a collection of two or more persons who interact and have mutual influence on each other. (612)

group polarization: the tendency for groups to make more-extreme decisions than their members would make as individuals. (613)

groupthink: the tendency of small, cohesive groups to place unanimity ahead of critical thinking in making decisions. (614)

Guilty Knowledge Test: a method that assesses lying by measuring physiological arousal in response to information that is relevant to a transgression and physiological arousal in response to information that is irrelevant to that transgression. (436)

gustation: the sense of taste, which detects molecules dissolved in the saliva. (181)

H

hallucinogens: psychoactive drugs that induce extreme alterations in consciousness, including visual hallucinations, a sense of timelessness, and feelings of depersonalization. (223)

halo effect: a type of rating bias in which the overall evaluation of an individual and other specific ratings are based on a single notable aspect of the individual's performance. (662)

health psychology: the field that applies psychological principles to the prevention and treatment of physical illness. (22, 558)

hemispherectomy: the surgical removal of an entire cerebral hemisphere, usually to treat uncontrollable epilepsy. (92)

heritability: the extent to which variability in a characteristic within a group can be attributed to heredity. (109, 365)

heuristic: a general principle or rule of thumb that guides problem solving, though it does not guarantee a correct solution. (316)

hidden observer: Ernest Hilgard's term for the part of the hypnotized person's consciousness that is not under the control of the hypnotist but is aware of what is taking place. (215)

hierarchy of needs: Abraham Maslow's arrangement of needs in the order of their motivational priority, ranging from physiological needs to the needs for self- actualization and transcendence. (378)

higher-order conditioning: in classical conditioning, the establishment of a conditioned response to a neutral stimulus that has been paired with an existing conditioned stimulus. (237)

hippocampus: a limbic system structure that contributes to the formation of memories. (83)

historicism: an approach to history that studies the past for its own sake, in the context of beliefs and knowledge that characterized the period being studied. (4)

holophrastic speech: the use of single words to represent whole phrases or sentences. (330)

homeostasis: a steady state of physiological equilibrium. (377)

homosexuality: a consistent preference for sexual relations with persons of one's own sex. (392)

hormones: chemicals, secreted by endocrine glands, that play a role in a variety of functions, including synaptic transmission. (76)

hospice movement: the movement to provide care for the terminally ill in settings that are as close as possible to everyday life, and that emphasizes the need to reduce pain and suffering. (140)

humanistic perspective: the psychological viewpoint that holds that the proper subject matter of psychology is the individual's subjective mental experience of the world. (17)

hypermnesia: the hypnotic enhancement of recall. (214)

hyperopia: visual farsightedness, which is caused by a shortened eyeball. (157)

hypnosis: an induced state of consciousness in which one person responds to suggestions by another person for alterations in perception, thinking, and behavior. (212)

hypochondriasis: a somatoform disorder in which the person interprets the slightest physical changes as evidence of a serious illness. (490)

hypothalamus: a forebrain structure that helps to regulate aspects of motivation and emotion, including eating, drinking, sexual behavior, body temperature, and stress responses, through its effects on the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system. (83)

hypothesis: a testable prediction about the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. (35)

I

iconic memory: visual sensory memory, which lasts up to about a second. (274)

id: in Freud's theory, the part of the personality that contains inborn biological drives and that seeks immediate gratification. (443)

identity versus role confusion: Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by establishing a sense of personal identity. (132)

illusory contours: the perception of edges that do not actually exist, as though they were the outlines of real objects. (166) implicit memory: recollection of previous experiences demonstrated through behavior, rather than through conscious, intentional remembering. (280)

impression management: the deliberate attempt to control the impression that others form of us. (597)

incentive: an external stimulus that pulls an individual toward a goal. (378) incentive value: the perceived rewards that accompany success in a particular area. (399)

incongruity theory: the theory that humor is amusing when it brings together incompatible ideas in a surprising outcome that violates one's expectations. (422)

independent variable: a variable manipulated by the experimenter to determine its effect on another, dependent, variable. (47)

industrial/organizational psychology: the field that applies psychological principles to improve productivity in businesses, industries, and government agencies. (22)

industry versus inferiority: Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by developing a sense of competency. (122)

infancy: the period that extends from birth through 2 years of age. (115)

inferential statistics: statistics used to determine whether changes in a dependent variable are caused by an independent variable. (56, 650)

information-processing: model the view that the processing of memories involves encoding, storage, and retrieval. (274)

initiating structure: the leadership characteristic of defining the roles of the leader and the subordinates in order to achieve the group's formal goals. (668)

initiative versus guilt: Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by behaving in a spontaneous but socially appropriate way. (122)

insanity: a legal term attesting that a person is not responsible for his or her own actions, including criminal behavior. (509)

insight: an approach to problem solving that depends on mental manipulation of information rather than overt trial and error, and produces sudden solutions to problems. (315)

insomnia: chronic difficulty in either falling asleep or staying asleep. (206)

instinct: a relatively complex, inherited behavior pattern characteristic of a species. (376)

instinctive drift: the reversion of animals to behaviors characteristic of their species even when being reinforced for performing other behaviors. (259)

instrumental conditioning: a form of learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable, depending on its consequences. (246)

instrumentality: the extent to which an individual believes that attaining a particular outcome will lead to other positively valued outcomes. (664)

integrity versus despair: Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by reflecting back on a meaningful life. (140)

intelligence: the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment. (346)

intelligence quotient (IQ): 1. originally, the ratio of mental age to chronological age; that is, MA/CA 3 100. 2. today, the score on an intelligence test, calculated by comparing a person's performance to norms for her or his age group. (349)

intelligence test: a test that assesses overall mental ability. (347)

interference theory: the theory that forgetting results from some memories' interfering with the ability to remember other memories. (287)

internal validity: the extent to which changes in a dependent variable can be attributed to one or more independent variables rather than to a confounding variable. (48)

interneuron: a neuron that conveys messages between neurons in the brain or spinal cord. (68)

interval scale: a scale of measurement that indicates the exact magnitude of scores, but not their ratio to one another. (641)

intimacy versus isolation: Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by establishing a relationship with a strong sense of emotional attachment and personal commitment. (137)

intrinsic motivation: the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. (400)

introvert: a person who is socially reserved and prefers to pay attention to his or her private mental experiences. (449)

in vivo desensitization: a form of counterconditioning that trains the client to maintain a state of relaxation in the presence of anxiety-inducing stimuli. (525)

iris: the donut-shaped band of muscles behind the cornea that gives the eye its color and controls the size of the pupil. (156)

J

James-Lange theory: the theory that specific patterns of physiological changes evoke specific emotional experiences. (423)

job analysis: defining a job in terms of the tasks and duties involved and the requirements needed to perform it. (658)

job description: a written statement of what a job entails and how and why it is done. (658)

just noticeable difference (JND): Weber and Fechner's term for the difference threshold. (154)