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American Government 4/e Thomas E. Patterson | |||||
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American Government 4/e Thomas E. Patterson | |||||
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
Introduction
Clinton exploited inherent leeway in president’s constitutional authority in pursuing his Iraq policy
Presidents have wide latitude in defining their duties
The Constitution: vests power in a single executive (Framers considered three persons)
Separation of powers and electors would limit president’s power
Framers did not anticipate selection by popular election
Framers did not foresee leadership implications of office
Two features of the presidency—national election and singular authority—enable presidents to claim position of national leader
The chapter’s main points:
Public expectations, crises, changing world/nation conditions: strong presidency
Modern presidential campaigns: a marathon affair
Presidents cannot exercise complete control over huge staff
Foundations of The Modern Presidency
Introduction (expansion of presidential powers, especially the war power)
Since Jefferson, presidents have sent troops overseas more than two hundred times
Of twelve wars, only five declared by Congress (but not Korea, Vietnam, Gulf)
Presidential powers: diplomacy, treaties
Executive agreements—don’t require Senate confirmation
Since World War II, presidents have negotiated more than ten thousand agreements but less than one thousand treaties
Power to appoint major administrators (Hamilton: president’s real power)
Reagan used executive power to inhabit abortion counseling
Clinton used same power to permit federal funding for counseling
Legislative authority—use of veto, recommend proposals to Congress
Framers expected this authority to be used in limited/largely negative way
Modern presidents use veto regularly (FDR vetoed record 635 acts of Congress)
An Emerging Tradition of Strong Presidents
Jackson contended he was "the people’s tribune"
Whig theory was prevailing conception of the presidency (James Buchanan):
President confined to expressly granted constitutional authority
President primarily an administrator who carried out will of Congress
Stewardship theory—T. Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson
Called for a strong, assertive presidency, no undefined inherent constraints
FDR signaled the end of the limited presidency
The Need for Presidential Leadership in National Crises
Lincoln: acted decisively during Civil War outbreak (Congress backed him)
FDR: Congress backed his evacuation of Japanese Americans after Pearl Harbor
Truman: president must use whatever power not denied to him by Constitution
The Need for Presidential Leadership of an Activist Government
During 1800s, nation did not need a strong president (sectionalism, isolationist)
Foreign Policy Leadership—World War II changed nation’s international role
Foreign policy often requires fast action
Domestic Policy Leadership—President given power to initiate budget
New Deal made government partner in the economy
Employment Act of 1946—federal government maximizes employment
Since FDR, federal government’s role has expanded—shifted power to president
All democracies have seen power moving to executive (British prime minister)
Choosing the President
The Development of the Presidential Selection System (each reform based on legitimacy)
The First and Second Systems: Electors and Party Conventions
Framers developed electoral college (no direct election of president)
House, due to lack of majority, chose Jefferson in 1800 (Burr controversy)
Twelfth Amendment enacted to prevent ties in electoral college
Some electors followed party’s caucus ("King Caucus")
Jackson’s reforms: tied electoral vote to popular vote/convention
Only Hayes, Harrison have won after losing the popular vote
Jackson also eliminated caucus through nominating convention
The Third and Fourth Systems: Primaries and Open Races
Until 1968, primary victories did not guarantee nomination (Kefauver)
After Humphrey in 1968, Democrats reformed system:
Delegates chosen through primary elections or open party caucuses
Republicans also affected
In sum: System is now based on popular support, not elite-dominated
The Campaign for Nomination (wide open, drawn-out, starts with unknowns)
Media and Momentum (strong showing in early contests builds public support)
Dukakis in 1988; Clinton did well on Super Tuesday 1992
Money needed—over twenty state contests scheduled in first month of 2000 campaign
Issues, name recognition can help
Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974:
Federal matching funds to raises at least $5,000 in each of twenty states
In 1996, spending limit for each candidate was nearly $30 million
The National Party Conventions
Conventions tame today—not since 1952 has nomination gone past first ballot
Delegates vote on platform, nominate ticket
Some conventions conflictual: McCarthy-Humphrey in 1968
Can cement party unity—a fourth of voters solidify presidential choice
Conventions can produce a "bounce" in polls (Clinton)
Selection of vice president rests with the presidential nominee
The Campaign for Election
Introduction
Hard for minor party or independent candidate to win (Perot)—two-thirds of voters identify with main two parties
Election Strategy
"The economy, stupid"—Clinton’s key issue in 1992
Leadership image can change—Bush from 91 percent to below 40 percent
Electoral votes—required 270 (majority) of 538
Win in most populous states—California, New York, Texas, etc.
Unit rule—(except Maine and Nebraska)—all to popular vote victor
Possibility: popular vote winner could lose election (Ford in 1976)
Media and Money
Media campaign—"sound bites" and talk shows (new media) in 1992;
Televised debates (since 1960 with Kennedy and Nixon)
Debates influenced votes of only small percentages of voters
Perot’s debate performance helped him
Political advertising
Since 1976, TV commercials have accounted for about half of
Candidates’ expenditures in general election campaign
"Packaging the presidency"
Negative ads effective
Major party nominees in 2000 will receive about $65 million each
Candidates who accept federal grants can spend no more funds
All major-party nominees since 1976 have accepted public funding
Other candidates: federal funds if 5 percent of vote received
(can’t spend more than $50,000 of their own money)
The Winners
All have been white males, most well-to-do Anglo-Saxon Protestants
Nearly a third have been vice presidents, others held high office
Recently, vice presidency has been inside track to presidency
Staffing the Presidency
Presidential Appointees
Appointees are a source of policy information
Appointees extend president’s reach into the huge federal bureaucracy
Tend to be individuals who share president’s political beliefs
Reagan rejected many non-conservatives
Carter chose many (42 percent) independents or members of opposition party
The Executive Office of the President (EOP—created in 1939)
Includes OMB, NSC, and CEA
The vice president—some, like Gore, given responsible tasks
The White House Office—serves president most directly and personally
President’s assistants—can be fired or hired at will
Policy experts—CEA on economy
The President’s Cabinet—heads of executive departments
Cabinet heads—appointed by president, confirmed by Senate
Has no formal authority; today outmoded as a policymaking forum
Some heads may oppose President—Carter’s firing of Califano in 1978
Other Presidential Appointees—directors and deputies of federal agencies/commissions
President appoints more than five thousand executive officials
About seven hundred appointees who serve president more or less directly
The Problem of Control
Problem of president controlling numerous, independently-oriented subordinates
Policy experts might have a narrow view of national priorities
Top political appointees might behave too independently
Lower-level career appointees are sometimes "captured" by their own agency
Organizing the Extended Presidency
The Pyramid Approach—Eisenhower, Nixon, Reagan, Bush
Permits more effective control of subordinates
Frees president from dealing with minor issues
Dangers: information blocked, advisers make own decisions
The Hub-of-the-Wheel Approach—FDR, Kennedy, Johnson, Ford, Carter, Clinton
President at center of organization, accessible to many advisers
Allows more information to reach president with more options/opinions
Problems: Encourages personal rivalries, undermines team efforts; president may be overloaded with staff opinions
Carter switched to a more hierarchical system
Likewise Ford and Clinton—each turned to strong chief of staff
The Insoluble Problem: presidential responsibilities are so broad that all assistants cannot be supervised directly.
Modern presidency is a double-edged sword: presidents have greater responsibilities than predecessors and thus more power, but they must rely on staffers who might or might not work for the best interests of the president
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