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American Government 4/e Thomas E. Patterson | |||||
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American Government 4/e Thomas E. Patterson | |||||
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
Introduction
The G-8 summit meeting in 1998 dramatized world political change
Russia, once a superpower, now a struggling nation
Focus on cooperation rather than competition
National security now includes both economic and military might
America must maintain relations with about 160 nations around the world
The chapter’s main points:
The United States has been the world leader since World War II
The president dominates the foreign and defense policy machinery
The United States maintains a high level of defense preparedness
Economic interdependence among nations affects American security
The Roots of U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy
Introduction
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 left America as the only superpower
The key to global success has now become a strong economic base
The United States as Global Superpower
Introduction
America moved from being an isolationist country to being internationalist
After World War II, America’s concern was Soviet expansion
The Doctrine of Containment
Kennan’s plan called for checking Soviet power regionally
Truman saw Soviets as global threat (lesson of Munich)
The Cold War (hostility but not actual combat between superpowers)
Communist victory in China; Truman and Korean War in 1950
Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 under Kennedy
Naval blockade of Cuba eventually removed Soviets missiles
But aftermath was arms race as Soviets pursued buildup
The Limits of American Power: The Vietnam War
U.S. backed South Vietnam after Geneva Conference
Kennedy placed 17,000 advisors there; Johnson escalated in 1965
U.S. had 550,000 troops in Vietnam by late 1960s
But guerrilla war dragged on—no victory
Many young people protested against war
Johnson chose not to run; Nixon sought "peace with honor"
Détente (a "relaxing" of tensions between U.S. and Soviet Union)
Lesson of Vietnam was that there were limits to American power
Nixon’s trip to China and SALT agreement on nuclear weapons
Disintegration of the "Evil Empire"
Reagan depicted Soviets as evil, began massive military buildup
Soviets collapsed due to heavy defense outlays, inefficient economy
Gorbachev tried perestroika (economic restructuring)
After 1989, liberation of Eastern Europe, end of Berlin Wall
In December of 1991, Soviet Union ceased to exist
A New World Order—emphasized multilateralism
Multilateralism worked in Gulf War against Iraq
Germany, Japan funded operation; Soviet cooperation
Use of UN as well
But aftermath turbulent; Iraq not complying with UN directives
U.S. troops under UN sent to Somalia in 1992—was a disaster
Major nations could not resolve conflict in Bosnia
Major nations involved could not agree on a course of action
Use of air power against the Serbs vs. danger to ground troops
Regional ethnic hatreds cannot be settled by outside force
Multilateralism only somewhat successful in resolving international conflicts
The Process of Foreign and Military Policymaking
Introduction
National security policy rests on relationships with outside powers
No international body has final authority on disputes among nations
The Policymaking Instruments
Acts of diplomacy involve bilateral or multilateral nations
Military power can be used unilaterally (United States has used its military power)
Economic exchange takes one of two forms—trade or assistance
Intelligence gathering is monitoring of other countries’ activities
The Policymaking Machinery
President dominates here
National Security Council provides advice on foreign and military issues
Includes president, vice-president, secretaries of defense and state
CIA director, Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff are advisory members
President’s National Security Advisor has become important
Defense Organizations (DOD—Department of Defense)
DOD has 1.5 million military personnel, 750,000 civilian employees
DOD created in 1947; each service has its own secretary
Service secretaries report to Secretary of Defense
JCS (Joint Chiefs) help shape military strategy and weapons needs
NATO—with demise of USSR, has been restructured
Charter prohibits it from acting out of its area
Bosnian war created rift within NATO (bombing vs. diplomacy)
Latest plans include widening of membership (Eastern Europe)
Intelligence Organizations
CIA and National Security Agency (electronic communications analysis)
Figure that federal government spends on intelligence: more than 20 billion
CIA now stressing drug trafficking, terrorism, industrial espionage
Diplomatic Organizations
Department of State—small (only about 25,000 people)
Influence of Secretary of State varies with each president
Bush chose James Baker due to this leadership
Organization of American States and United Nations
France, U.S., USSR, China, Britain would work together
Cold war destroyed unity
Can UN today play large role in world politics as once envisioned?
UN was effective in Persian Gulf
UN has worked on terrorism, drug trafficking
But UN needs cooperation of members
Also, leaders respond more to domestic pressures
U.S. politicians have divided opinions about UN
Critics charge U.S. pays too much of UN’s costs
Nation’s foreign policy should not be controlled by UN
Economic Organizations
Executive departments, Federal Trade Commission, Export-Import Bank
World Trade Organization—nations negotiate rules of trade
IMF and World Bank assist developing countries
World Bank makes long-term loans to poorer nations
IMF provides short-term loans
The Military Dimension of National Security Policy
Introduction
End of USSR led to significant defense reductions
Still, U.S. spending is more than twice that of NATO nations (per capita)
U.S. defense budget is second to none in the world
Defense Capability
U.S. conventional forces are quite strong; have advanced weaponry as well
Pentagon is working on next generation: "smart" and "brilliant" weapons
Ability to control information is critical; U.S. leads in this area
Nuclear deterrence rested on "triad" (land, air, sea)
Triad provided "second-strike capability"
Tactical nuclear battlefield weapons are available
The Uses of Military Power (six types of military action)
Unlimited Nuclear Warfare
Limited Nuclear Warfare
Major concern for Russians—control of arsenal
Proliferation of weapons (terrorists, outlaw nations such as Iraq)
Unlimited Conventional Warfare (no longer credible threat in Europe)
Limited Conventional Warfare (Persian Gulf War)
These wars do not always produce satisfactory results
Political aspects remain troublesome (Bush’s ending of war—too soon?)
Counterinsurgency
Police-Type Action (other global problems)
Drug trafficking, terrorism, political instability, population movements
Examples were in Haiti in 1992, 1994
These actions not favored by military commanders, but will likely continue
The Politics of National Defense
Public Opinion and Elite Conflict
Majority opinion important in Vietnam, Somalia, Persian Gulf
But most conflicts over defense policy take place between political elites
Democrats more reluctant to support military spending increases
Presidents have backed military spending more than Congress
The Military-Industrial Complex (Eisenhower warned about it in 1961)
Defense budget over $250 billion in fiscal year 1994 (5 percent of GNP)
Complex has three components:
Military establishment
Defense industries
Members of Congress who come from defense-related districts
Economic impact of a weapon system can be substantial:
B-1 Bomber—built by 5,200 subcontractors in forty-eight states
B-1 affected all but a handful of congressional districts
Unsure as to exact proportion of spending that derives from complex
Defense firms: hurt by cutbacks, so they are turning to export sales
Nine of ten largest arms-making firms are American firms
These firms control two-thirds of global arms sales
The Economic Dimension of National Security Policy
Introduction
Economic considerations are a vital part of national security
A strong defense rests upon economic strength
USSR bankrupted itself; U.S. succumbed to "imperial overstretch"
A Changing World Economy
The Marshall Plan aided European recovery while creating a market for U.S. goods
Germany and Japan became economic competitors with U.S.
Japan has trade surplus with U.S.
Western Europe, including Germany, less receptive market for U.S.
Currently, a tripolar economic world:
United States—produces nearly 20 percent of world’s goods and services
Japan—accounts for 10 percent of the global economy
European Union—has over 25 percent of the global gross product
These three centers: 15 percent of world population, 60 percent of global economy
U.S. is weakest of three in some ways
It has the world’s largest national debt
It has the worst trade imbalance
U.S. is strongest of three in some ways
Its economy is more well-rounded
It has abundant resources, strong industry and agriculture
It ranks highest in economic competitiveness
U.S. stable economically as Europe and Asia struggled in the 1990s
American Goals in the Global Economy
Introduction
Sustaining an open system of trade
Maintaining access to vital energy and other resources
Keeping the gap between rich and poor nations from upsetting global trade
Global Trade
After World War II, boom in global trade for America
U.S. still world’s leading exporting nation, but still imports more than it exports
In recent years, trade deficit over $100 billion
Protectionism vs. free trade debate
Center of protectionism has been Congress
Free trade (lowering of trade barriers) centers on White House
NAFTA (U.S., Canada, Mexico) debate illustrates interests
In first year, NAFTA was a boon to three nations
However, Mexico’s fiscal problems cloud picture
Opponents of free trade blocked president’s "fast track" authority
GATT rules approved in 1994
Aim at creating nearly a free global marketplace
Tariffs lowered by a third, protections for copyrights
Create standards for securities, worker safety, environment
WTO is GATT’s successor; 124 member nations are committed to free trade regulated to ensure fair play
Access to National Resources
America not self-sufficient in oil (domestic production accounts for only half used)
Economic interdependence may make military action counterproductive
Relations with the Developing World
U.S. gives large amount of foreign aid and assistance to developing world
Main recipient of foreign aid is Israel ($3 billion annually)
Some politicians (Jesse Helms) wish to reduce aid
Foreign aid accounts for less than 1 percent of total federal budget
Private investment by U.S. multinational corporations leads world
Investments send profits back to United States
Makes other nations dependent on American prosperity
Some say U.S. puts too much emphasis on trade, not enough on human rights and democracy
Clinton’s 1998 visit to China was criticized
The Politics of Global Economic Policy
The U.S. depends more heavily on its economic strength to help with trade
U.S. corporations have tried to make products more competitive
Much greater stress on lowering trade barriers among nations
Public opinion supports economic over military priorities for the nation
Economic priorities will probably continue to be a driving factor in American foreign policy
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