accountability—the ability of the public to hold government officials responsible for their actions.

affirmative action— a term that refers to programs designed to ensure that women, minorities and other traditionally disadvantaged groups have full and equal opportunities in employment, education and other areas of life.

Age-cohort tendency—holds that a significant break in the pattern of political socialization is almost always concentrated among younger citizens.

agenda setting—the power of the media through news coverage to focus the public's attention and concern on particular events, problems, issues, personalities, and so forth.

agency point of view—the tendency of bureaucrats to place the interests of their agency ahead of other interests and ahead of the priorities sought by the president or Congress.

agents of socialization—influences on socialization such as family, schools, peers, the mass media, and political leaders and events.

air wars—applied to candidates' use of televised ads especially by playing off each other's ads, seeking to gain the strategic advantage.

alienation—a feeling of personal powerlessness that includes the notion that government does not care about the opinions of people like oneself.

Antifederalists—the label given to the opponents of the ratification of the Constitution.

apathy—a feeling of personal non-interest or unconcern with politics.

appellate jurisdiction—the authority of a given court to review cases that have already been tried in lower courts and are appealed to it by the losing party; such a court is called an appeals court or appellate court.

authority—the recognized right of an official or institution to exercise power.

balanced budget—revenues from taxes for the year were equal to government expenditures for that same year.

bill—a proposed law (legislative act) within Congress or another legislature.

Bill of Rights—the first ten amendments to the Constitution which set forth basic protections for individual rights to free expression, fair trial and property.

block grants—federal grants-in-aid that permit state and local officials to decide how the money will be spent within a general area, such as education or health.

budget deficit—government expenditures for a given fiscal year exceed revenues from taxes.

bureaucracy—a system of organization and control based on the principles of hierarchical authority, job specialization and formalized rules.

Cabinet—a group consisting of the heads of the (cabinet) executive departments, who are appointed by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate. The cabinet was once the main advisory body to the president but no longer plays this role.

cabinet (executive) departments—the major administrative organizations within the federal executive bureaucracy, each of which is headed by a secretary (cabinet officer) and has responsibility for a major function of the federal government, such as defense, agriculture or justice.

candidate-centered politics—election campaigns and other political processes in which candidates, not political parties, have most of the initiative and influence.

capitalism—an economic system based on the idea that government should interfere with economic transactions as little as possible. Free enterprise and self-reliance are the collective and individual principles that underpin capitalism.

categorical grants—federal grants-in-aid to states and localities that can be used only for designated projects.

checks and balances—the elaborate system of divided spheres of authority provided by the U.S. Constitution as a means of controlling the power of government. Separation of powers among the branches of the national government, federalism, and the different methods of selecting national officers are all part of this system.

citizens' (or non-economic) groups—organized interests formed by individuals drawn together by opportunities to promote a cause in which they believe but which does not provide them significant individual economic benefits.

civic duty—the belief that civic and political participation is a responsibility of citizenship.

civil liberties—the fundamental individual rights of a free society, such as freedom of speech and the right to a jury trial, which in the United States are protected by the Bill of Rights.

clear-and-present-danger test—a test devised by the Supreme Court in 1919 in order to define the limits of free speech in the context of national security. According to the text, government cannot abridge political expression unless it presents a clear and present danger to the nation's security.

clientele groups—special-interest groups that benefit directly from the activities of a particular bureaucratic agency and are therefore strong advocates of the agency.

cloture—a parliamentary maneuver which, if a three-fifths majority votes for it, limits Senate debate to 100 hours and has the effect of defeating a filibuster.

cold war—the lengthy period after World War II when the United States and the USSR were not engaged in actual combat (a "hot war") but were nonetheless locked in a state of deep-seated hostility.

collective (public) goods—benefits that are offered by groups (usually citizens' groups) as an incentive for membership but that are nondivisible (e.g., a clean environment) and therefore are available to nonmembers as well as members of the particular group.

commerce clause—the clause of the Constitution (Article I, section 8) that empowers the federal government to regulate commerce among the states and with other nations.

common-carrier role—the media's function as an open channel through which political leaders can communicate with the public.

comparable worth—the idea that women should get pay equal to men for work that is of similar difficulty and responsibility and that requires similar levels of education and training.

compliance—the issue of whether a court's decisions will be respected and obeyed.

concurring opinion—a separate opinion written by a Supreme Court justice who votes with the majority on a case but who disagrees with their reasoning.

confederacy—a governmental system in which sovereignty is vested entirely in subnational (state) governments.

conference committee—a temporary committee that is formed to bargain over the differences in the House and Senate versions of a bill. The committee's members are usually appointed from the House and Senate standing committees that originally worked on the bill.

conservatives—those who emphasize the marketplace as the means of distributing economic benefits but look to government to uphold traditional social values.

constituency—the individuals who live within the geographical area represented by an elected official. More narrowly, the body of citizens eligible to vote for a particular representative.

constitution—provides for limited government by defining lawful powers including the principles according to which a country is organized.

constitutional democracy—a government that is democratic in its provisions for majority influence through elections and is constitutional in its provisions for minority rights and rule by law.

constitutionalism—the idea that there are definable limits on the rightful power of a government over its citizens.

containment—a doctrine developed after World War II based on the assumptions that the Soviet Union was an aggressor nation and that only a determined United States could block Soviet territorial ambitions.

cooperative federalism—the situation in which the national, state and local levels work together to solve problems.

de facto discrimination—discrimination on the basis of race, sex, religion, ethnicity and the like that results from social, economic and cultural biases and conditions.

de jure discrimination—discrimination on the basis of race, sex, religion, ethnicity, and the like that results from a law.

dealignment—a situation in which voters' partisan loyalties have been substantially and permanently weakened.

decision—a vote of the Supreme Court in a particular case that indicates which party the justices side with and by how large a margin.

deficit-spending—spending for a given fiscal year exceeded revenues for that same year.

delegates—the idea of elected representatives as being obligated to carry out the expressed wishes of the electorate.

demand-side economics—a form of fiscal policy that emphasizes "demand" (consumer spending). Government can use increased spending or tax cuts to place more money in consumers' hands and thereby increase demand.

democracy—a form of government in which the people govern, either directly or through elected representatives.

demographic representativeness—the idea that the bureaucracy will be more responsive to the public if its employees at all levels are demographically representative of the population as a whole.

deregulation—rescinding regulations to improve efficiency.

descriptive style of reporting—a style of reporting that required that reporters stick to the "facts" which provided a straightforward description of events.

detente—a French word meaning "a relaxing" used to refer to an era of improved relations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union that began in the early 1970s.

deterrence—the idea that nuclear war can be discouraged if each side in a conflict has the capacity to destroy the other with nuclear weapons.

devolution—the passing down of authority from the national government to states and localities.

dissenting opinion—the opinion of a justice in a Supreme Court case that explains the reasons for disagreeing with the majority position.

diversity—the principle that individual differences should be respected, are a legitimate basis of self-interest and are a source of strength for the American nation.

denials of power—a constitutional means of limiting governmental action by listing those powers that government is expressly prohibited from using.

due-process clause—a clause in the Fourteenth Amendment which refers to the legal procedures that have been established as a means of protecting individuals' rights.

dual federalism—a doctrine based on the idea that a precise separation of national power and state power is both possible and desirable.

economic globalization—the increased interdependence of nations' economies as a result of the impact of the transportation and communication revolutions on how business firms conduct their operations.

economic groups—interest groups that are organized primarily for economic reasons but which engage in political activity in order to seek favorable policies from government.

economy—a system of production and consumption of goods and services which are allocated through exchange among producers and consumers.

efficiency—the relationship of inputs (the labor and material that go into making a product or service) to outputs (the product or service itself). The greater the output for a given input, the more efficient the production process.

elitism—the view that the United States is essentially run by a tiny elite (composed of wealthy or well-connected individuals) who control public policy through both direct and indirect means.

entitlement programs—individual-benefit programs, such as social security, that require government to provide a designated benefit to any person who meets the legally defined criteria for eligibility.

enumerated powers (expressed powers)—the seventeen powers granted to the national government under Article I, section 8 of the Constitution. These powers include taxation and the regulation of commerce as well as the authority to provide for the national defense.

equal-protection clause—a clause of the Fourteenth Amendment that forbids any state to deny equal protection of the laws to any individual within its jurisdiction.

equal rights (civil rights)—the right of every person to equal protection under the laws and equal access to society's opportunities and public facilities.

equality—the principle that all individuals have moral worth and are entitled to fair treatment under the law.

equality of opportunity—the idea that all individuals should be given an equal chance to succeed on their own.

equality of result—the objective of policies intended to reduce or eliminate the effects of discrimination so that members of traditionally disadvantaged groups will have the same benefits of society as do members of advantaged groups.

equity (in relation to economic policy)—a situation in which the outcome of an economic transaction is fair to each party. An outcome can usually be considered fair if each party enters into a transaction freely and neither is at a disadvantage.

establishment clause—the First Amendment provision that government may not favor one religion over another, or religion over no religion, and that prohibits Congress from passing laws respecting the establishment of religion.

exclusionary rule—the legal principle that government is prohibited from using in trials evidence that was obtained by unconstitutional means (for example, illegal search and seizure).

executive leadership system—an approach to managing the bureaucracy that is based on presidential leadership and presidential management tools such as the president's annual budget proposal.

externalities—burdens that society incurs when firms fail to pay the full cost of resources used in production. An example of an externality is the pollution that results when corporations dump industrial wastes into lakes and rivers.

facts (of a court case)—the relevant circumstances of a legal dispute or offense as determined by a trial court. The facts of a case are crucial because they help to determine which law or laws are applicable in the case.

federalism (federal system)—a governmental system in which authority is divided between two sovereign levels of government: national and regional.

Federalists—those who supported the ratification of the Constitution.

filibuster—a procedural tactic in the U.S. Senate whereby a minority of legislators prevent a bill from coming to a vote by holding the floor and talking until the majority gives in and the bill is withdrawn from consideration.

fiscal federalism—the expenditure of federal funds on programs run in part through state and local governments. grants-in-aid—cash payments from the federal government to states and localities for programs which they administer.

fiscal policy—a tool of economic management by which government attempts to maintain a stable economy through its taxing and spending decisions.

formalized rules—a basic principle of bureaucracy that refers to the standardized procedures and established regulations by which a bureaucracy conducts its operations.

free-exercise clause—a First Amendment provision that prohibits the government from interfering with the practice of religion or from prohibiting the free exercise of religion.

freedom of expression—Americans' freedom to communicate their views, the foundation of which is the First Amendment rights of freedom of conscience, speech, press, assembly and petition.

free-rider problem—a situation in which the incentives offered by a group to its members are also available to nonmembers. Incentives to join a group and to promote its cause are reduced because nonmembers (free riders) receive benefits without having to pay any of the group's costs.

free trade—the view that all countries benefit to the degree that trade between them is not impeded by tariffs and other forms of protectionism.

gender gap—the tendency of women to vote more heavily Democratic than men do.

government corporations—bodies, such as the U.S. Postal Service and Amtrak, that are similar to private corporations in that they charge for their services but different in that they receive federal funding to help defray expenses. Their directors are appointed by the president with Senate approval.

grants of power—the method of limiting the U.S. government by confining its scope of authority to those powers expressly granted in the Constitution.

grassroots lobbying—a form of lobbying designed to persuade officials that a group's policy position has strong constituent support.

grassroots party—a political party built from the bottom up consisting of committees and clubs at the local, state, and national levels, with membership open to all eligible voters.

Great Compromise—provided for a bicameral (two-chamber) Congress: the House of Representatives would be apportioned among the states on the basis of population and the Senate on the basis of an equal number of votes (two) for each state.

government—the effort of people to find agreeable ways of living together.

hard money—funding given by a political party and individual contributors to a candidate for office that is regulated by the campaign finance laws and must go directly to the candidate and can be spent as the candidate chooses.

hierarchical authority—a basic principle of bureaucracy that refers to the chain of command within an organization whereby officials and units have control over those below them.

hired guns—modern day campaign organization consisting of consultants, pollsters, media producers, and fund-raising specialists who charge for their services.

honeymoon period—the president's first months in office, a time when Congress, the press and the public are more inclined than usual to support presidential initiatives.

ideology—a consistent pattern of opinion on political issues that stems from a basic underlying belief or set of beliefs.

imminent-lawless-action test—limits the authority of a state to restrict speech that advocates the unlawful use of force unless that speech is likely to produce such action.

implied powers—the federal government's constitutional authority (through the "necessary and proper" clause) to take action that is not expressly authorized by the Constitution but which supports actions that are so authorized.

inalienable (natural) rights—those rights which persons theoretically possessed in the state of nature, prior to formation of governments. These rights, including those of life, liberty and property, are considered inherent and as such are inalienable. Since government is established by people, government has the responsibility to preserve these rights.

independent agencies—bureaucratic agencies that are similar to cabinet departments but usually have a narrower area of responsibility. Each such agency is headed by a presidential appointee who is not a cabinet member. An example is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

individualism—a philosophical belief that stresses the values of hard work and self-reliance and holds that individuals should be left to succeed or fail on their own.

in-kind benefit—a government benefit that is a cash equivalent, such as food stamps or rent vouchers. This form of benefit ensures that recipients will use public assistance in a specified way.

means test—the requirement that applicants for public assistance must demonstrate they are poor in order to be eligible for assistance.

inflation—an increase in the average level of prices of goods and services.

inside lobbying—direct communication between organized interests and policymakers, which is based on the assumed value of close ("inside") contacts with policymakers.

insurgency—a type of military conflict in which irregular soldiers rise up against an established regime.

internationalism—the view that the country should involve itself deeply in world affairs.

interest group—a set of individuals who are organized to promote a shared political interest.

interest-group liberalism—the tendency of public officials to support the policy demands of self-interested groups (as opposed to judging policy demands according to whether or not they serve a larger conception of "the public interest").

intermediate-scrutiny test—a test applied by courts to laws that treat individuals unequally. Such a law may be deemed constitutional if it serves a clearly compelling and justified purpose.

interpretive style of reporting—the style of reporting that aims to explain why something is taking place or has occurred.

iron triangle—a small and informal but relatively stable group of well-positioned legislators, executives and lobbyists who seek to promote policies beneficial to a particular interest.

isolationism—the view that the country should deliberately avoid a large role in world affairs and, instead, concentrate on domestic concerns.

issue network—an informal network of public officials and lobbyists who have a common interest and expertise in a given area and who are brought together by a proposed policy in that area.

job specialization—a basic principle of bureaucracy which holds that the responsibilities of each job position should be explicitly defined and that a precise division of labor within the organization should be maintained.

judicial activism—the doctrine that the courts should develop new legal principles when judges see a compelling need, even if this action places them in conflict with the policy decisions of elected officials.

judicial conference—a closed meeting of the justices of the U.S. Supreme Court to discuss the points of the cases before them; the justices are not supposed to discuss conference proceedings with outsiders.

judicial restraint—the doctrine that the judiciary should be highly respectful of precedent and should defer to the judgment of legislatures. The doctrine claims that the job of judges is to work within the confines of laws set down by tradition and law-making majorities.

jurisdiction (of a court)—a given court's authority to hear cases of a particular kind. Jurisdiction may be original or appellate.

judicial review—the power of courts to decide whether a governmental official or institution has acted within the limits of the Constitution and, if not, to declare its action null and void.

jurisdiction (of a congressional committee)—the policy area in which a particular congressional committee is authorized to act.

laissez-faire doctrine—a classic economic philosophy which holds that owners of businesses should be allowed to make their own production and distribution decisions without government regulation or control.

law (as enacted by Congress)—a legislative proposal, or bill, that is passed by both the House and Senate and is either signed or not vetoed by the president.

laws (of a court case)—the constitutional provisions, legislative statutes or judicial precedents that apply to a court case.

lawmaking function—the authority (of a legislature) to make the laws necessary to carry out the government's powers.

legitimacy—the idea that the choice of a president should be based on the will of the people as expressed through their votes.

legitimacy (of judicial power)—the issue of the proper limits of judicial authority in a political system based in part on the principle of majority rule.

libel—a written offense that greatly harms a person's reputation.

liberals—those who favor activist government as an instrument of economic security and equitable redistribution of resources but reject the notion that government should favor a particular set of social values.

libertarians—those who oppose government as an instrument of traditional values and of economic security.

liberty—the principle that the people are the ultimate source of governing authority and that their general welfare is the only legitimate purpose of government.

limited government—a government that is subject to strict limits on its lawful uses of powers and hence on its ability to deprive people of their liberty.

lobbying—the process by which interest-group members or lobbyists attempt to influence public policy through contacts with public officials.

majoritarianism—the idea that the majority prevails not only in elections but also in determining policy.

majority opinion—a Supreme Court opinion that results when a majority of the justices are in agreement on the legal basis of a decision.

material incentive—an economic lure such as that for high wages used to attract potential members to join an interest group.

merit (civil service) system—an approach to managing the bureaucracy whereby people are appointed to government positions on the basis of either competitive examinations or special qualifications, such as professional training.

military-industrial complex—the three components (the military establishment, the industries that manufacture weapons, and the members of Congress from states and districts that depend heavily on the arms industry) that mutually benefit from a high level of defense spending.

momentum—a strong showing by a candidate in early presidential nominating contests, which leads to a buildup of public support for the candidate.

monetary policy—a tool of economic management available to government that involves manipulation of the amount of money in circulation.

money chase—term used to explain the activity of candidates who are forced to spend much of their time raising funds because of the high cost of campaigns.

multilateralism—the situation in which nations act together in response to problems and crises.

multiparty system—a system in which three or more political parties have the capacity to gain control of government separately or in coalition.

national debt—the total amount owed to creditors by the federal government.

"necessary and proper" clause (elastic clause)—the authority granted to Congress in Article I, section 8 of the Constitution "to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper" for the implementation of its enumerated powers.

negative government—the philosophical belief that government governs best by staying out of people's lives, thus giving individuals as much freedom as possible to determine their own pursuits.

neutral competence—the administrative objective of a merit-based bureaucracy. Such a bureaucracy should be "competent" in the sense that its employees are hired and retained on the basis of their expertise and "neutral" in the sense that it operates by objective standards rather than partisan ones.

news—the news media's version of reality, usually with an emphasis on timely, dramatic and compelling events and developments.

nomination—the designation of a particular individual to run as a political party's candidate (its "nominee") in the general election.

objective journalism—a model of news reporting which is based on the communication of "facts" rather than opinions and which is "fair" in that it presents all sides of partisan debate.

open party caucuses—meetings at which a party's candidates for nomination are voted upon and which are open to all of the party's rank-and-file voters who want to attend.

opinion (of a court)—a court's written explanation of its decision which serves to inform others of the legal basis for the decision. Supreme Court opinions are expected to guide the decisions of other courts.

original jurisdiction—the authority of a given court to be the first court to hear a case.

outside lobbying—a form of lobbying in which an interest group seeks to use public pressure as a means of influencing officials.

oversight function—a supervisory activity of Congress that centers on its constitutional responsibility to see that the executive carries out the laws faithfully and spends appropriations properly.

packaging (of candidates)—the process in a campaign of placing aspects of the candidate's partisanship, policy positions, record, and personality in the context of the voters' "ideal" candidates.

partisan press—newspapers and other communication media that openly support a political party and whose news in significant part follows the party line.

party-centered politics—election campaigns and other political processes in which political parties, not individual candidates, hold most of the initiative and influence.

party caucus—party organization within Congress consisting of a separate and distinct group for members of each political party from which party leaders are selected and party interests defined.

party coalition—the groups and interests that support a political party.

party competition—a process whereby conflict over society's goals is transformed by political parties into electoral competition in which the winner gains the power to govern.

party discipline—the ability of a party's House or Senate members to act together as a cohesive group to support major party objectives.

party identification—the personal sense of loyalty that an individual may feel toward a particular political party.

party organizations—party organizational units at national, state and local levels; their influence has decreased over time as a result of many factors.

party leaders—members of the House and Senate who are chosen by the Democratic or Republican caucus in each chamber to represent the party's interests in that chamber and who give some central direction to the chamber's deliberations.

patronage system—an approach to managing the bureaucracy whereby people are appointed to important government positions as a reward for political services they have rendered and because of their partisan loyalty.

pluralism—a theory of American politics which holds that society's interests are substantially represented through the activities of groups.

plurality opinion—a court opinion that results when a majority of justices agree on a decision in a case but do not agree on the legal basis for the decision. In such instances, the legal position held by most of the justices on the winning side is called a plurality opinion.

policy—generally, any broad course of governmental action; more narrowly, a specific government program or initiative.

policy implementation—the primary function of the bureaucracy is policy implementation, which refers to the process of carrying out of the authoritative decisions of Congress, the president and the courts.

political action committees (PACs)—organizations through which interest groups raise and distribute funds for election purposes. By law, funds must be raised through voluntary contributions.

political culture—the characteristic and deep-seated beliefs of a particular people.

political participation—a sharing in activities designed to influence public policy and leadership such as voting, joining political parties and interest groups, writing to elected officials, demonstrating for political causes and giving money to political candidates.

political party—an ongoing coalition of interests joined together to get their candidates for public office elected under a common label.

political socialization—the learning process by which people acquire their political opinions, beliefs and values.

political system—the various components of American government constitute a political system. The parts are separate but they connect with each other, affecting how each performs.

politics—the process through which society makes its governing decisions.

population—in a public opinion poll, the term population refers to the people (for example, the citizens of a nation) whose opinions are being estimated through interviews with a sample of those people.

populists—those who favor activist government as a means of promoting both economic security and traditional values.

pork barrel projects—laws whose tangible benefits are targeted at a particular legislator's constituency.

positive government—the philosophical belief that government intervention is necessary in order to enhance personal liberty when individuals are buffeted by economic and social forces beyond their control.

poverty line—as defined by the federal government, the poverty line is the annual cost of a thrifty food budget for an urban family of four, multiplied by three to allow also for the cost of housing, clothes and other expenses. Families below the poverty line are considered poor and are eligible for certain forms of public assistance.

power—the ability of persons or institutions to control policy.

precedent—a judicial decision in a given case that serves as a rule of thumb for settling subsequent cases of a similar nature; courts are generally expected to follow precedent.

presidential approval rating—a measure of the degree to which the public approves or disapproves of a president's performance in office.

presidential commissions—these organizations within the bureaucracy are headed by commissioners appointed by the president. An example of such a commission is the Commission on Civil Rights.

press (news media)—those print and broadcast organizations that are in the news-reporting business.

primary election (direct primary)—a form of election in which voters choose a party's nominees for public office. In most primaries, eligibility to vote is limited to voters who are registered members of the party.

primary elections—election to nominate candidates for office in which the rank-and-file voters are given the opportunity to select party nominees.

primacy tendency—refers to the fact that what is learned first is often lodged most firmly in one's mind.

prior restraint—government prohibition of speech or publication before the fact, which is presumed by the courts to be unconstitutional unless the justification for it is overwhelming.

private (individual) goods—benefits that a group (most often an economic group) can grant directly and exclusively to individual members of the group.

probability sample—a sample for a poll in which each individual in the population has a known probability of being selected randomly for inclusion in the sample.

procedural due process—the constitutional requirement that government must follow proper legal procedures before a person can be legitimately punished for an alleged offense.

proportional representation—a form of representation in which legislative seats are allocated proportionally according to each political party's share of the popular vote. This system enables smaller parties to compete successfully for seats.

prospective voting—a form of electoral judgment in which voters choose the candidate whose policy promises most closely match their own preferences.

protectionism—the view that the immediate interests of domestic producers should have a higher priority (through, for example, protective tariffs) than free trade among nations.

public assistance—a term that refers to social welfare programs funded through general tax revenues and available only to the financially needy. Eligibility for such programs is established through a means test.

public opinion—those opinions held by ordinary citizens that they express openly.

public opinion poll—a device for measuring public opinion whereby a relatively small number of individuals (the sample) are interviewed for the purpose of estimating the opinions of a whole community (the population).

public representative role—a role whereby the media attempt to act as the public's representatives.

purposive incentive—reasons for joining a citizens' group. A purposive incentive provides an opportunity to promote a cause in which an individual believes.

realignment—an election or set of elections in which the electorate responds strongly to an extraordinarily powerful issue that has disrupted the established political order. A realignment has a lasting impact on public policy, popular support for the parties and the composition of the party coalitions.

reapportionment—the process, after a new population census, of redistributing House seats so that the number of seats in each state more closely reflects the size of each state's population.

reasonable-basis test—a test applied by courts to laws that treat individuals unequally. Such a law may be deemed constitutional if its purpose is held to be "reasonably" related to a legitimate government interest.

redistricting—the process of altering election districts in order to make them as nearly equal in population as possible. Redistricting takes place every ten years, after each population census.

registration—the practice of placing citizens' names on an official list of voters before they are eligible to exercise their right to vote.

regulation—a term that refers to government restrictions on the economic practices of private firms.

regulatory agencies—administrative units, such as the Federal Communications Commission and the Environmental Protection Agency, that have responsibility for monitoring and regulating ongoing economic activities.

representation function—the responsibility of a legislature to represent various interests in society.

representative democracy—a system in which the people participate in the decision-making process of government not directly but indirectly, through the election of officials to represent their interests.

republic—historically, the form of government in which representative officials met to decide on policy issues. These representatives were expected to serve the public interest but were not subject to the people's immediate control. Today, the term republic is used interchangeably with democracy.

reserved powers—the powers granted to the states under the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution.

retrospective voting—a form of electoral judgment in which voters support the incumbent candidate or party when their policies are judged to have succeeded and oppose the candidate or party when their policies are judged to have failed.

rider—an amendment to a bill being considered by Congress.

sample—in a public opinion poll, the relatively small number of individuals who are interviewed for the purpose of estimating the opinions of an entire population.

sampling error—a measure of the accuracy of a public opinion poll. The sampling error is mainly a function of sample size and is usually expressed in percentage terms.

selective incorporation—the absorption of certain provisions of the Bill of Rights (for example, freedom of speech) into the Fourteenth Amendment so that these rights are protected from infringement by the states.

self-government—the principle that the people are the ultimate source and proper beneficiary of governing authority; in practice, a government based on majority rule.

senatorial courtesy—the tradition that a U.S. senator from the state in which a federal judicial vacancy has arisen should have a say in the president's nomination of the new judge if the senator is of the same party as the president.

seniority—a member of Congress's consecutive years of service on a particular committee.

separated institutions sharing power—the principle that as a way to limit government, its powers should be divided among separate branches, each of which also shares in the power of the others as a means of checking and balancing them. The result is that no one branch can exercise power decisively without the support or acquiescence of the others.

separation of powers—a way to check power with power by dividing the authority of government so that no single institution could exercise great power without the agreement of other institutions.

service relationship—a situation where party organizations assist candidates for office but have no power to require them to accept or campaign on the party's main policy positions.

service strategy—use of personal staff by members of Congress to perform services for constituents in order to gain their support in future elections.

signaler role—the accepted responsibility of the media to alert the public to important developments as soon as possible after they happen or are discovered.

single-issue politics—a situation in which separate groups are organized around nearly every conceivable policy issue and press their demands and influence to the utmost.

single-member districts—a form of representation in which only a single candidate is elected to a particular office by the voters of that district. This system favors major parties because only candidates who can gain a large proportion of votes in an election district have a realistic chance of winning.

slander—a spoken offense that greatly harms a person's reputation.

social capital—consists of the sum of the face-to-face civic interactions among citizens in a society.

social insurance—social welfare programs based on the "insurance" concept, so that individuals must pay into the program in order to be eligible to receive funds from it. An example is social security for retired people.

social (political) movements—active and sustained efforts to achieve social and political change by groups of people who feel that government has not been properly responsive to their concerns.

soft money—process made possible by a loophole in campaign finance regulation which enables a contributor to give an unlimited amount of money to a political party. This money must be spent only on party activities (rather than the candidate individually) building party membership, getting out the vote through ads and registration drives, and advertising campaigns that raise public awareness about political issues.

sovereignty—the ultimate authority to govern within a certain geographical area.

split-ticket voting—the pattern of voting in which the individual voter in a given election casts a ballot for one or more candidates of each major party. This pattern is the opposite of straight-ticket voting.

spoils system—the practice of granting public office to individuals in return for political favors they have rendered.

standing committee—a permanent congressional committee with responsibility for a particular area of public policy. An example is the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.

stewardship theory—a theory that argues for a strong, assertive presidential role, with presidential authority limited only at points specifically prohibited by law.

straight-ticket voting—this occurs when a voter in an election casts a ballot that includes only candidates of the same party.

strict-scrutiny test—a test applied by courts to laws that attempt a racial or ethnic classification. In effect, the strict-scrutiny test eliminates race or ethnicity as a legal classification when it places minority group members at a disadvantage.

structuring tendency—refers to the tendency of earlier learning to structure later learning.

suffrage—the right to vote.

sunset law—an oversight device which fixes a date on which a program will end unless it is renewed by Congress.

supply-side economics—a form of fiscal policy that emphasizes "supply" (production). An example of supply-side economics would be a tax cut on business.

supremacy clause—Article VI of the Constitution, which makes national law supreme over state law when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits.

suspect classifications—legal classifications, such as race and national origin, that have invidious discrimination as their purpose and are therefore unconstitutional.

symbolic speech—conduct that is designed to express an opinion.

transfer payment—a government benefit that is given directly to an individual, as in the case of social security payments to a retiree.

trustees—the idea that elected representatives are obligated to act in accordance with their own consciences concerning which policies are in the best interests of the public.

two-party system—a system in which only two political parties have a real chance of acquiring control of the government.

tyranny of the majority—the potential of a majority to monopolize power for its own gain to the detriment of minority rights and interests.

unit rule—all of a state's electoral votes are awarded to the candidate who wins the state's popular vote.

unitary system—a governmental system in which the national government alone has sovereign (ultimate) authority.

unity—the principle that Americans are one people who form an indivisible union.

veto—presidential refusal to sign a bill whereby the bill is sent back to its originating chamber with the president's reasons for not signing it.

voter turnout—the proportion of persons of voting age who actually vote in a given election.

watchdog role—the accepted responsibility of the media to protect the public from deceitful, careless, incompetent and corrupt officials by standing ready to expose any official who violates accepted legal, ethical or performance standards.

Whig theory—a nineteenth century theory that the presidency was a limited or restrained office whose occupant was confined to expressly granted constitutional authority.

whistle-blowing—an internal check on the bureaucracy whereby individual bureaucrats report instances of mismanagement that they observe.

writ of certiorari— permission granted by a higher court to allow a losing party in a legal case to bring the case before it for a ruling; when such a writ is requested of the U.S. Supreme Court, four of the Court's nine justices must agree to accept the case before it is granted certiorari.