 | Organization Theory: Tension and Change 1e Online content by David Jaffee | |||||
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| Organization Theory: Tension and Change 1e Online content by David Jaffee | |||||
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| Preface |
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As a sociologist, I was first attracted to the study of organizations because they seemed to hold the key to understanding so many other aspects of social life.
Organizations affect us as individuals, as well as at the group, community, national, and international levels. For example, definitions of self and human identity are shaped by the kinds of work people do and the roles they assume within organizations. To understand inequality among members of society, one must look at the ways in which organizations reward people in terms of income, prestige, and authority. To understand the dynamics of power, it is impossible to ignore organizations. Power stems from positions held within organizations and/or from the ownership and control of organizations. People who seek political power use organizations and mobilize organizational resources. International development is heavily influenced by the actions of transnational corporations and international agencies. In short, it seems that everywhere we look, organizations play some role in shaping social structures and influencing social change.
Another unique aspect of organizations is the fact that people spend most of their lives working in, moving between, and being influenced by organizations. The entire life course - from birth, to family life, to schooling, to work, to death - takes place within organizational settings.
When they come to class, students are operating within the organizational setting of higher education. Most students are -- or have been -- employed by some type of a work organization. In this context, many of the seemingly abstract ideas, concepts, and theories come to life because students are able to connect them to their own concrete experiences. Not only do students benefit, but this makes teaching a course on organizations very rewarding and exciting!
Because one of the central objectives of a liberal education is to develop the capacity to interpret and analyze our personal lives using theoretical ideas and perspectives, studying and writing about organizations contributes to this vital educational mission as well.
Another appealing aspect about the study of organizations is that the subject matter is inherently interdisciplinary. When we talk about organizations and try to understand why and how they work, we can benefit by borrowing insights from psychology, sociology, political science, economics, geography, management, history, and even biology. For example, it is difficult to make sense of what goes on within organizations without considering the psychological component people bring to them and the way organizations might shape personality. Similarly, from a sociological perspective, we see that organizations influence behavior through the roles and norms associated with the different positions people occupy within an organization.
Organizations are political arenas, because people and groups develop different goals and interests, engage in conflict, and compete for resources. As places where goods and services are produced, organizations are economic entities. They are located in geographic locations and thus draw on and influence resources in different regions, communities, and societies. As goal-directed entities, organizations must be managed and coordinated, and a great deal of the literature on organizations is closely connected to the topics of business and management. There is also a historical dimension. History provides insights into the development of organization theories as they have evolved as tools for analyzing organizations from the rise of the factory to the emergence of post-modern forms. Finally, biological models have been used to describe and understand the workings of organizations as organisms.
It is difficult to imagine another subject area in sociology with so many connections to so many different fields of intellectual inquiry and analysis. To write and teach about organizations is to advance the cause of interdisciplinary thinking.
In short, I view organizations as an exciting and stimulating topic. I, therefore, enjoy writing about organizational issues and sharing these ideas with others. Much of my motivation for writing this book stems from my commitment to the subject matter and to my desire to provide a fresh and contemporary view of organizational theories and developments. It is exciting to discover the ways in which organizations connect not only with our daily experiences but also with larger events that indirectly influence our human existence. In an academic context, it is vital to integrate the work of different disciplines in developing an understanding of organizations. I have written this book in the hope that students will develop an interest in organizations as well as a capacity for sound and rigorous organizational analysis.
What Makes This Text Different?
There are already many fine books about organization theory, so one might ask, Why do we need another one? Or, to put it in more positive terms, If one is going to write another text, what special features should it offer that will differentiate it in some meaningful way from the existing crop? Let me highlight what I believe are some distinctive aspects of this book.
The Approach
I have always believed that one of the best ways to engage student interest in a topic is to link the subject matter to a set of questions, issues, problems, or controversies. Because ideas, concepts, and theories are generated as tools with which to address these intellectual and practical challenges, one must try to determine what these central problems or questions are and also explain how the theoretical literature grapples with them. As I have taught and studied organization theory over the past fifteen years, I have identified two fundamental tensions that have stimulated much of the work in this field. These tensions serve as a theoretical framework throughout the book.
First, there is the tension posed by the human factor. How to control and manage human beings poses a perpetual organizational problem. As conscious, reflective, and reactive creatures, humans are able -- and often willing -- to resist organizational pressures. Consequently, a large portion of organization and management theory is devoted to explaining how humans are effectively controlled or managed in organizational settings. If human were passive objects, rather than active subjects, they would readily conform to organizational dictates. Because humans are neither passive nor objects, an endless series of organization theories and management strategies have been developed to explain and mobilize the human factor. The history and evolution of organization theory is heavily shaped by this tension.
A second tension is generated by the organizational decision to differentiate activities in terms of jobs, occupations, departments, and units. This differentiation is an attempt to rationally structure organizational processes and thus gain the benefits of specialization. At the same time, however, organizations must also make sure that people, jobs, and production units fit well together. They must be coordinated, and they must be connected to the larger mission of the organization. This constitutes the problem of integration. The tension between differentiation and integration has also provided fertile ground for significant theorizing, organizational analysis, and management strategy.
As noted above, these tensions posed by the human factor and the differentiation-integration tradeoff will serve as a thematic framework for the material presented in this book. As we consider the ways in which organization theories develop and evolve, and how they are transformed, we will see how these tensions are a constant source of theoretical and practical concern. This theme will also emphasize the fact that organizations are characterized by conflict, contradiction, and paradox -- the harbingers of organizational change.
Illustrations and Examples
A second feature of this book which distinguishes it from other texts, particularly sociological, is its use of illustrations and examples derived from the real world of organization and business. It is important for students to appreciate the integral relationship between theory and reality (or practice). This point has special relevance for organizations, because many theories directly inform organizational and management practices and, in turn, organizational experiences and management problems stimulate new theoretical approaches.
In Chapter 2 the tensions and contradictions inherent in organizations are illustrated with case material focusing on an auto parts manufacturer, a quality improvement program, and higher education. In Chapter 4 we consider the way human relations and resource theories are translated into actual management practices. Chapter 5 explores the diffusion of bureaucracy in the context of the fast-food model known as McDonaldization. In Chapter 6 emerging organizational forms revolve around the contrasting practices of Ford Motor Company and Toyota Motors. In Chapter 7 post-bureaucracy is illustrated with examples from a chemical company, a hearing aid manufacturer, and an office furniture firm. Interspersed throughout the text, there is also a wide assortment of illustrations derived from the business press.
Content
The core content of organization theory revolves around scientific management, bureaucracy, human relations, technology, the environment, and culture. In addition to these standard themes, this text will introduce topics that are often neglected, but which are increasingly vital for organization theory and analysis. These include the literature on:
Book Web Site
An important pedagogical feature of this book is the corresponding web site that will help instructors and students get the most out of the material in this book. The web site will be easily accessible through the McGraw-Hill web site [www.mhhe.com/jaffee]. It will contain exercises, discussion questions, additional content, and links to web sites that have a direct connection to the topics covered in each chapter. The web site will be a learning environment that will emphasize the application of theory, the synthesis of ideas, and active learning processes. Instructors can direct their students to particular items, or students may use the site as a way to further their own learning and understanding of the organizational issues.
Softcover Format / Manageable Length
This book is intentionally designed to be shorter in length than the standard hardcover text, which can often run 500 pages or more. For many instructors who like to assign additional readings, such as an anthology or a research monograph, this text would be an ideal companion to these other learning resources. The shorter length and softcover format will also ease the strain on the student's budget.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my appreciation to the panel of reviewers who took the time to read the manuscript and provide constructive suggestions that have produced a better final product. They are: Paul S. Ciccantell, Kansas State University; Lisa A. Keister, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill; Geoffrey Grant, South Dakota State University; David Olday, Moorhead State University; Teresa Scheid, University of North Carolina-Charlotte; and William E. Snizek, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
I would also like to thank my student at SUNY-New Paltz, Kathy Warner, who devoted an entire independent study to reading and recommending ways to make this book more student-friendly.
Thanks are also due, once again, to Marilyn Glass, who typed the entire manuscript and tolerated my endless revisions, changes, reorganizations, and wholesale substitutions.
Finally, there is my loving family - my wife, Marianne, and my daughters, Katy and Anna - who always wonder why I spend my time writing these things, but support my efforts nonetheless.
David Jaffee
University of North Florida
